Intersectionality

Intersectionality is a term introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw to articulate how different aspects of a person's identity, such as race, gender, and class, interact to shape their experiences, particularly focusing on Black women's employment experiences.
Crenshaw approaches intersectionality from a legal vantage point, emphasizing the need for stakeholders to recognize that Black women possess multiple and overlapping identities.

At its core, intersectionality serves as a framework to elucidate complexities within discrimination law that have been overlooked by courts.
Crenshaw notes that courts often generalize experiences of racial discrimination affecting all Black people and sex discrimination affecting all women, thus rendering the unique experiences of Black women nearly invisible.
The theory originated as a response to biases encountered within the legal system, especially after the civil rights era, aiming to highlight the nuanced experiences of marginalized groups.

Case Study: DeGraffenreid v. General Motors (1976)
- Five Black women filed a lawsuit against General Motors, contending that a seniority policy disproportionately affected them.
- Prior to 1964, General Motors did not hire Black women, leading to layoffs during a recession that primarily impacted those hired after this date.
- The court determined that it was impractical to bind racial discrimination and sex discrimination together; thus, only separate claims could be pursued.

Crenshaw proposes that intersectionality should not be perceived as a totalizing theory but rather as a utility to understand the multifaceted nature of violence against women of color, which cannot be fully explained through race or gender alone.
Her perspective posits that various forms of oppression (e.g., ableism, classism, heterosexism) need to be examined in relation to one another instead of isolation.
Support from Psychological Research: There is psychological backing for this concept of identity that reveals how people's experiences are shaped by multiple, interconnected identities.

Crenshaw expands the notion of intersectionality by including other identities, such as immigration status and socioeconomic status (SES), highlighting that these intersect with experiences of systemic oppression.
Issues like domestic violence disproportionately affect women of color and are further complicated by the broader social conditions that contribute to their vulnerability.
Crenshaw also addresses the tendency within antiracist discourse to reduce the problem of violence against women of color to merely a racial issue, thus failing to recognize the implications of gender domination within marginalized communities.
To effectively confront violence against women of color, she argues for a reevaluation of how power operates within these contexts.

Coping with Gendered Racial Microaggressions: Dr. Jioni Lewis discusses strategies for coping with gendered racial microaggressions including:
- Primary Appraisal: Recognizing stressful situations.
- Resistance (Secondary Appraisal): Utilizing one’s voice as a form of power—resisting societal standards of beauty.
- Coping Strategies:
- Self-Protective Strategies: Develop a tough exterior (Black Superwoman Complex).
- Collective Strategies: Relying on support networks to cope with stressors.

Study by Settles (2006): Examined 89 Black women who perceived their Black woman identity as the most significant aspect of their identity, greater than identifying simply as Black or as a Woman.
Analysis of Biracial Subgroups: A study found that SES, religion, and gender influenced how biracial individuals identified their racial identity. Notably, women were more likely to label themselves as multiracial compared to men, suggesting the fluidity in identity perception influenced by additional social dimensions.

Support for Mental Health: A program studied by Ali et al. (2010) highlighted the importance of peer group support in therapeutic settings for mental health and economic empowerment.
- Clients engage in a peer group to gain accountability and encouragement, receiving business training and networking opportunities.
- Remarkably, 40.5% of participants diagnosed with major depression were no longer clinically depressed after participating in this program for six months.
Emphasizing that traditional mental health services have often overlooked the social determinants affecting clients' well-being, findings suggest peer-based community support may effectively address these social issues.

Crenshaw brings attention to how traditional frameworks for analyzing issues like sexual violence do not adequately address the compounded marginalization faced by Black women.
She highlights the cultural narratives around the experiences of women of color as both a challenge and an opportunity to apply intersectional critiques effectively.
This raises concerns within mainstream psychological research, as social identities cannot be randomly assigned or simplified. Studies must consider in-group differences and how environmental inequities influence outcomes.

A specific study demonstrated that participants exposed to empowerment narratives about women often attributed workplace inequity to individual deficiencies rather than systemic problems, redirecting which party bears the responsibility for social issues.

The Minority Stress Perspective posits that stressors specific to the LGBTQ+ community contribute to disparities in health outcomes. Research has shown, particularly in studies involving Black and Caribbean American lesbians and bisexual women, that internal factors like self-esteem and identity are crucial for active coping strategies.
While external support is important, the research suggests a more significant relationship between psychological capacity (internal resources) and the ability to cope actively with stressors.

Ali, E., et al. (2010). Community-empowerment informed therapies.
Bowleg, L., Craig, M., & Burkholder, A. (2004). Minority stress model.
Hendricks, M. L. et al. (2012). Professional Psychology, Research and Practice.
Lopez, M. H. et al. (2002). Social Support and Well-Being.
Settles, I. H. (2006). Identity and Intersectionality.
Smith, R. (2005). Social Factors in Mental Health Research.