Notes on the Chronicles of the Indies

Los Cronistas de Indias

  • The arrival of Europeans in America marked a significant event in human history, characterized by discovery and conquest.
  • Spanish conquest was driven by three primary motivations: "Oro, Gloria y Evangelio" (Gold, Glory, and Gospel).
    • Oro (Gold): Reflected the economic expansion and commercial revolution of Spain and Portugal from the 14th century, driven by the need for gold to facilitate trade and credit.
    • Gloria (Glory): Related to the pride and vanity of the Spanish during their period of European dominance.
    • Evangelio (Gospel): Stemmed from the defense of Christianity against Islam, with the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula intensifying religious fervor and leading to the view of the Conquest as a Christian crusade.
  • Conquistadors documented new flora, fauna, and native populations, creating early writings about America.
  • These writings took the form of chronicles, travel logs, and explorations, recorded by eyewitnesses or humanists.
  • Hispanic-American literature began with these chronicles, offering direct accounts of the Conquest.
  • The chronicles depict the transplanting of European culture, destruction of pre-Columbian civilizations, and the emergence of a new society during the colonial period.
  • Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas described the use of tobacco leaves and indigenous techniques.
  • Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo noted indigenous use of "tabaco", similar to "beleño".
  • Cieza de León described the use of coca leaves by natives.
  • Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas described the use of tobacco and its effects.

Early Encounters and Interactions

  • Hernán Cortés met Moctezuma in Tenochtitlán, marking a significant interaction between Spanish and indigenous leaders.

Fusion of Reality and Fantasy

  • The chronicles blend real events with fables and myths, creating a "real fantastic" narrative that influenced later Latin American novels.
  • These chronicles share similarities with books of chivalry.
  • Chroniclers included soldiers like Bernal Díaz del Castillo, clergymen such as Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, and Renaissance-era scholars like Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo.
  • Later, individuals born in America, like Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, wrote their own chronicles.

The Quest for Gold and Silver

  • The primary motivation for conquistadors was the search for precious metals.
  • Initially, colonization was centered in the Antilles until 1520.
  • The focus shifted to continental areas, including Mexico and Alto Perú, which became the heart of the Spanish empire for two and a half centuries.
  • The Antillean population was depleted, leading to the decline of surface gold exploitation.
  • Silver surpassed gold in volume and value in shipments to Spain.

The Chronicle as a Historical-Literary Genre

  • Spanish historiography originated from medieval chronicles, which were formalized by Alfonso X, el Sabio (13th century).
  • Alfonso X's court compiled "Cantigas", legal works like the "Siete Partidas", histories of Spain and the world, and treatises on astronomy, mineralogy, and astrology.
  • The chronicles aimed to perpetuate the deeds of princes and their Christian actions for moral and didactic purposes.
  • These intentions were later adopted by official chronicles of the Indies.
  • Crónicas can be classified into three types:
    • general chronicles of all times
    • chronicles of a kingdom
    • chronicles of particular events (e.g. the Discovery of America).
  • Following the Discovery, navigation letters (e.g., Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespuccio) and accounts of injustices (e.g., Bartolomé de Las Casas) circulated widely.

Debates and Royal Intervention

  • The chronicles sparked debates in European courts regarding the justification of the Conquest and the rights of the indigenous population.
  • Felipe II established the "Crónica Mayor de las Indias" by law to compile writings on discoveries, conquests, and indigenous customs to prevent disrepute.
  • A royal decree in 1573 mandated detailed records of the land, sea, natural phenomena, and moral aspects.

Organization of the Crónica Mayor de las Indias

  • In 1571, López de Velazco was appointed as the first royal chronicler to create a "Geografía Universal de las Indias".
  • Later legislation divided the task into four parts: geographic, natural, civil, and ecclesiastic history.
  • That same year, Francisco Toledo commissioned Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to document an official inca history.
  • In 1588, Francisco Cervantes de Zalazar was authorized to compile the chronicle of Nueva España in México.
  • Despite political constraints, the body of work from discoverers and conquistadors continued to grow.

Contrasting Worldviews

  • The chronicles hold differing concepts of history compared to indigenous accounts.
  • While European chronicles reflect Renaissance ideals of progress and discovery, indigenous chronicles focus on omens and a world threatened by history.
  • Spanish chronicles view the discoveries as opening new perspectives, whereas indigenous chroniclers see history as a looming fate.

Presagios Funestos (Funest Omens)

  • First Funest Presagio: Ten years prior to the arrival of the Spanish, a fiery omen appeared in the sky, causing widespread alarm.
  • Octavo Presagio Funesto: Deformed and monstrous beings were seen, causing fear and consternation.

Chronicle Classifications

  • Crónicas del Descubrimiento (15th century)
  • Crónicas de la Conquista (16th century)
  • Crónicas generales
  • Crónicas particulares
  • Crónicas oficiales
  • Crónicas privadas
  • Crónicas escritas por españoles
  • Crónicas escritas por americanos
  • Crónicas escritas por eclesiásticos
  • Crónicas escritas por seglares
  • Crónicas escritas por testimonios directos
  • Crónicas escritas por testimonios indirectos

Notable Chroniclers and Their Works

  • Crónicas del Descubrimiento: Cartas de Cristóbal Colón (1492-1504)
  • Crónicas de la Conquista: Cartas de relación de Hernán Cortés (1519-1526)
  • Cronistas generales: Padre Joseph de Acosta (Historia natural y moral de las Indias, 1590)
  • Cronistas particulares: Pedro Cieza de León (Conquista del reino de los incas)
  • Cronistas nacidos en América: Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (La Florida del Inca, Comentarios reales)
  • Cronistas oficiales: Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (Historia general, 1535)
  • Cronistas privados: Bernal Díaz del Castillo (Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, 1568)
  • Cronistas eclesiásticos: Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas

Clash of Cultures

  • The chroniclers documented their experiences, blending reality with imagination.
  • The territorial conquest led to a clash between European and American cultures.
  • The chronicles reflect the debate surrounding the treatment of indigenous peoples, exemplified by Bartolomé de Las Casas's critique of the "destrucción de las Indias".

The Language of Conquest

  • The Castilian language served as a unifying force during the Conquest, overcoming the diversity of indigenous languages.
  • Nebrija's grammar (1492) marked the starting point for the language used in the chronicles.
  • Language was a political tool; Spanish authorities enacted laws to establish linguistic unity in America.

Linguistic Policies

  • In 1550, Carlos V mandated the teaching of Spanish in America, assigning the task to religious orders.
  • In 1580, Felipe II ordered evangelization in indigenous languages, requiring priests to learn these languages.
  • This bilingualism led to racial segregation in religious services.
  • Later, the Consejo de Indias proposed mandatory Spanish instruction to replace indigenous languages.
  • Felipe II opposed forcing natives to abandon their original languages.
  • Carlos III, in 1770, decreed the extinction of different languages and the exclusive use of Castilian.

Cristóbal Colón (Christopher Columbus) as a Chronicler

  • Christopher Columbus is considered the first chronicler of America.
  • His Diario de viaje documents events, observations, impressions, and assumptions about the American landscape and people.
  • The original diary is lost, but fragments were preserved by Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas in Historia de las Indias.
  • Columbus described the indigenous people as easily converted to Christianity through love rather than force.

Columbus's View of Nature and Indigenous People

  • Columbus viewed nature as a terrestrial paradise, admiring the fertility of the lands, the size of the trees, the abundance of rivers, and the songs of birds.
  • He described the indigenous people as simple and virtuous beings.
  • He noted their nakedness and their fear of the Spanish, whom they believed came from heaven.
  • Columbus portrayed them as generous, loving, and physically beautiful.
  • He stated that they were ignorant of weapons and had no religious sect, expecting their easy conversion to Christianity.

Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas: Defender of the Indians

  • Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474-1566) was a religious figure who defended the rights of the Indians.
  • He criticized the conquistadors and opposed war against the natives.
  • His works (Historia general de las Indias, Historia apologética, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias) denounced the colonial system and the exploitation of the Indians.
  • He advocated for evangelization through persuasion rather than violence.
  • In Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias he described the massacres and tortures inflicted on indigenous populations.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo: A Soldier's Account

  • Bernal Díaz del Castillo (1496-1580) participated in the conquest of the Aztec empire with Hernán Cortés.
  • His Historia verdadera de la conquista de Nueva España is considered a key work of Hispanic-American literature.
  • Del Castillo combines reality and fantasy in his narratives.
  • He provides vivid descriptions of the conquest and its characters.
  • He portrayed Moctezuma as a tragic figure who earned the admiration and respect of the chronicler.

Key Figures and Scenes

  • Gonzalo Guerrero: A Spanish soldier assimilated into indigenous life.
  • Marina ("la lengua"): An interpreter who played a crucial role in Cortés's political strategies.
  • Description of México City: Highlighted the markets, causeways, and vibrant atmosphere.
  • Moctezuma's Ambassadors: Sent painters to capture the images of Cortés and his company.

Indigenous Gods

  • Topa Inga Yupanqui communicated with stones and demons to know the past and future.

Royal Decrees and Prohibitions

  • Queen Isabel prohibited the importation of vain and profane stories to the Indias, restricting books to religious topics.

Literary Value

  • Díaz del Castillo's work blends fantasy and reality, offering poetic descriptions of the Conquest.

Notable Official Chroniclers

  • Pedro Mártir de Anglería (1457-1526): Humanist and writer, author of De Orbe Novo (Historia del Nuevo Mundo).
  • Francisco López de Gómara (1511-1562): Professor who compiled Historia general de las Indias.

Main Chroniclers of the Conquest

  • Hernán Cortés (1485-1547): Wrote letters between 1519 and 1526 (Cartas de relación sobre el descubrimiento y conquista de Nueva España).
  • Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (1490?-1559?): Participated in the conquest of Florida and wrote Naufragios.

Main Religious Chroniclers

  • Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: Studied indigenous language and culture.

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's Contributions

  • Studied at Salamanca and came to Nueva España. Studied the indigenous language.
  • His book is a treaty of history of the indians and a document of philology.
  • He worked with seminarists to collect Nahuatl information at Tepeculco, Tlatelolco, and México.
  • His Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España is a comprehensive work on the customs, beliefs, and arts of ancient Mexico.
  • Sahagún's work covers gods, festivals, the immortality of the soul, astrology, rhetoric, philosophy, merchants, animals, and the Conquest of Mexico.

Fray Ramón Pané

  • Fray Ramón Pané accompanied Colón on his second voyage and documented the beliefs of the Taínos.
  • His Relación acerca de las antigüedades de los indios is the first book written about the American world.

Inca Garcilaso de la Vega

  • Inca Garcilaso de la Vega: Author of Comentarios reales.
  • First trata of imperio inca and conquistador, and second trata and its effects.
  • His work reflects the views of the conquered and exalts the Inca culture.

Structure and Themes of Comentarios Reales

  • A vision of conquerors and conquered for the first time.
  • Each book contains different themes.

Language and Style

  • Comentarios Reales presents historical elements in an artistic style.

Epic Poetry

  • The conquest of the New World inspired epic poems like La Araucana (Alonso de Ercilla) and El arauco domado (Pedro de Oña).

Colonial Culture

  • The chronicles narrate the events, actions of the Conquest, and Colonization.
  • A sedentary society emerged after the 16th century, characterized by a baroque style that combined Hispanic and indigenous elements.

Colonial Writers

  • Criollo writers like Juan de Espinosa Medrano blended Hispanic and indigenous elements in their works.

Transition from Conquest to Colony

  • Change from chronicles to baroque literature.
  • Appearance of criollo writers who drew from European culture.
  • Emergence of an American spirit reflecting indigenous languages and Spanish.

Colonial Society

  • The administration tried to create a new Spain in the region.
  • Colonial society included Spaniards, criollos, and indigenous people.
  • The viceroyalties included: Nueva España, Nueva Granada and Río de la Plata.

Notable Colonial Cities and Figures

  • Santo Domingo as a cultural hub.
  • Cuba as a key to the New World.
  • San Juan de Puerto Rico as a city of fantasy.

Indigenous and Colonial Influences

  • Mutuas influencias (transculturación) - mixing colonial and indigenous. flowers, moons and suns.

Colonial Cultural Expressions

  • The colonial period was marked by the adoption and recreation of Spanish literary forms.
  • The early epics gave fruit as La Araucana.
  • The theathers transitioned to religious theaters.

Colonial Society

  • The colony concluded its heroic stage with the conquest.

Colonial art and expression

  • Indigenious expressions in the colony are mixed into colonial art.

University Culture and Education

  • The Spanish culture created universities and education.

Colonial literature and art

  • Colonial literature subgated by the teología (theology).

Colonial Society

  • Colonial society (mestiza).- fusion of Spanish and indigenous blood to create new environment.

Colonial literary genres

  • Genres - poetry, travel logs etc came from Spanish.

El renacimiento (renaissance)

  • It reflected a new man as the axis of the world, desplaced from Italia to Spain.
  • It created a poetry and novel of poetry and novels the poetry was corteous and mystic.

Los Generos literarios del primer periodo colonial (literary generes of the first colonial period)

  • The Spanish colonies are influced by the spirit of baroco and el renacimmiento.