PSY 1100 Introduction to Psychology Final Exam Study Guide

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Critical Thinking: Involves evaluating information and arguments to make informed decisions, minimizing biases and misconceptions.

Wilhelm Wundt: Often referred to as the father of psychology, founded the first psychological laboratory.

Contemporary Approaches

Biological/Neuroscience: Focuses on physiological and genetic influences on behavior.

Behavioral: Examines observable behaviors and the ways they're learned.

Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious motivations and early childhood experiences.

Humanistic: Concentrates on personal growth and the concept of self-actualization.

Cognitive: Studies internal mental processes such as perception, thinking, and problem-solving.

Sociocultural: Investigates how cultural and social contexts shape behaviors and beliefs.

Biopsychosocial: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental health.

Culture

Definition: A system of shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors that shape a group's way of life.

Examples: Language, traditions, art, and social norms.

Research Definitions

Theory vs. Hypothesis: A theory is a broad explanation while a hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a theory.

Descriptive Research: Involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables. Types include case studies, surveys, and observational research.

Case Study: Detailed analysis of a single individual or event; e.g., studying the life of a famous psychologist.

Correlational Research: Assesses relationships between variables but cannot establish causation.

Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1 to +1; indicates direction (positive or negative) and strength of the association.

Causation Note: Correlation does not equal causation; other factors may influence relationships.

Experimental Research

Definitions: Experiment tests a hypothesis by manipulating variables.

Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to groups to minimize bias.

Variables:

Independent Variable: The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable: The outcome measured that may change due to the independent variable.

Experimental vs. Control Group: The experimental group receives the treatment, while the control group does not for comparison.

Chapter 2: The Brain and Behavior

Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt; more pronounced during development or after injury.

Divisions of the Nervous System:

Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body; includes somatic and autonomic systems.

Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions; subdivided into sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).

Stress and Stressors: Stress is the body's reaction to challenges; stressors are triggering stimuli.

Neurons and Neurotransmitters: Neurons transmit information; neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin influence mood and behavior.

Dopamine: Involved in pleasure and reward; too much can lead to schizophrenia, too little linked to Parkinson's.

Serotonin: Regulates mood; low levels associated with depression.

Structures of the Brain:

Limbic System: Emotions and memory; includes the amygdala (fear response) and hippocampus (memory formation).

Cerebral Cortex: Higher brain functions; divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).

Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input; Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movement.

Corpus Callosum: Connects brain hemispheres for communication.

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception

Difference:

Sensation: Detection of physical energy from the environment.

Perception: Interpretation of sensory input.

Bottom-up Processing: Starts with sensory input; e.g., identifying an object based on its features.

Top-down Processing: Uses context and prior knowledge; e.g., reading jumbled letters in a sentence.

Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others; e.g., concentrating on a conversation in a noisy room.

Sensory Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to constant stimuli; e.g., not noticing a strong smell after being exposed to it for a while.

Perceptual Constancy: Recognizing objects as constant despite changes in sensory input; includes size, shape, and color constancy.

Chapter 4: States of Consciousness

Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment; includes controlled and automatic processes.

Circadian Rhythms: Biological clock influencing sleep-wake cycles; typically impacts performance and wellness.

Sleep Stages:

Non-REM Stages: Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (sleep spindles), Stage 3/4 (deep sleep).

REM Stage: Features increased brain activity, dreaming occurs here.

Sleep Disorders:

Insomnia: Difficulty falling/staying asleep.

Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Drug Effects:

Depressants: Slow CNS activity; e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines.

Stimulants: Increase CNS activity; e.g., caffeine, amphetamines.

Hallucinogens: Alter perceptions; e.g., LSD, psilocybin.

Meditation: A practice for focused attention, reducing stress and enhancing well-being.

Chapter 5: Learning

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Types of Learning:

Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior.

Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.

Classical Conditioning: Associative learning; key concepts include:

Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR), Neutral Stimulus (NS), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR).

Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences; includes reinforcement (positive vs. negative) and punishment (positive vs. negative).

Shaping: Gradual reinforcement of behaviors closer to the desired behavior.

Chapter 6: Memory

Memory Definition: The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Encoding: Transforming information into a form suitable for storage; levels of processing affect outcomes.

Storage: Maintaining information; includes sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Short-term Memory: Holds information temporarily; chunking improves capacity.

Long-term Memory: More permanent storage; includes sematic, episodic, and procedural memory.

Retrieval: Getting info out of memory; includes serial position effect (primacy and recency effects).

Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

Cognition: Mental processes like thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Problem Solving: The process of finding solutions; contrasts with reasoning and decision-making.

Confirmation Bias: Tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Intelligence: Defined as the ability to adapt to new situations; can be measured through various assessments.

Validity & Reliability: Concepts critical to assessment quality; validity refers to accuracy, while reliability refers to consistency.

Normal Distribution: A statistical function that represents the distribution of many types of data.

Chapter 8: Human Development

Development: Refers to the psychological growth and maturation process.

Nature and Nurture: Addresses the influences of genetics vs. environmental factors on behavior.

Resilience: Ability to adapt and recover from difficult experiences.

Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

Motivation Definition: Process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Drive Reduction Theory: Suggests behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives.

Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s model outlining the stages of human motivation from basic needs to self-actualization.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Differentiates between motivation from internal factors versus external rewards.

Chapter 10: Personality

Personality Definition: Unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Perspectives on Personality: Include psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, and social-cognitive theories.

Big Five Model: Traits include Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN model).

Chapter 11: Social Psychology

Social Psychology Definition: Studies how people influence and are influenced by others.

Bystander Effect: Phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help when others are present.

Attribution Theory: Explains how we assign causes to behavior; includes fundamental attribution error.

Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs; resolved through various means, such as changing beliefs.

Chapter 12: Psychological Disorders

Criteria for Abnormal Behavior: Deviance, maladaptiveness, and personal distress.

DSM-5: Diagnostic manual for mental disorders, providing criteria for screening.

Chapter 13: Therapies

Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy: Understanding mental health issues and therapeutic techniques employed.

Types of Therapy: Each approach (e.g., psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive-behavioral) provides specific methods for treatment.

Biological Therapies: Involve medication for various disorders.

Chapter 14: Health Psychology

Health Psychology Definition: Explores how psychological factors influence health, illness, and healthcare.

Stages of Change Model: Outlines precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance stages.

General Adaptation Syndrome: Stages of stress response—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Health Disparities: Differences in health outcomes across various demographics due to a range of factors including socioeconomic status.

Note: These notes are structured in-depth to cover essential content relevant to the PSY 1100 Final Exam