Arrive on time. No entry is allowed once a student has completed and left the exam room.
Use the restroom before the exam. Bathroom breaks are not permitted during the exam.
Print last name, first name on both the question sheet and Scantron. Both must be returned.
Write on the question sheet, but return it. Points will be deducted for not printing your name or missing the three-digit test number on the Scantron.
Electronic devices, including headphones, earbuds, cell phones, and smartwatches, are strictly prohibited. If any device is visible, it results in an automatic zero on the exam. Devices must be shut off and stored away, or left at the front desk.
The exam consists of 35 questions but will be graded as 33, with extra credit built in.
Interstitial Fluid
The general fluid in the body is called interstitial fluid, a non-cellular component.
Cells are in contact with the interstitial fluid, which is also referred to as intercellular or extracellular fluid.
Blood Cells
Two general types of blood cells:
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Epithelial Cells
Shapes of epithelial cells:
Squamous (flat)
Cuboidal
Columnar
Arrangement of epithelial cells:
Simple (one row)
Stratified (more than one row)
Naming stratified epithelium:
Named according to the apical (outer) layer.
Example: 10 rows of epithelium with the outer layer being squamous is called stratified squamous.
Transitional epithelium:
Found in the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder).
Changes shape: squamous when stretched (full bladder), cuboidal when contracted (empty bladder).
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscles have multiple nuclei, not one centrally located nucleus like neurons.
Energy and Nutrients
Lipids have approximately twice the calories per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins.
Energy can transfer from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed (conservation of energy).
Vitamin D is necessary for calcium absorption and is produced with the help of sunlight. Vitamin D deficiency is common due to spending time indoors.
Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K
Water-soluble vitamins: B and C
Energy content of food is measured in calories or kilocalories.
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Understand the BMI chart, including the ranges for normal, obese, and undernourished.
Vitamin Deficiencies
Night vision problems are associated with vitamin A deficiency.
Rickets is related to vitamin D deficiency and lack of calcium absorption.
Beriberi is a deficiency of vitamin B1.
Folic acid should be taken before pregnancy to avoid birth defects.
Tissue Types
Axons and dendrites are neural tissue.
Bones and cartilage are connective tissue.
Three types of muscle:
Smooth
Skeletal
Cardiac
Epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium, which is stratified because of constant shedding and replacement of cells.
Anatomy
Sagittal section divides the body into two equal, opposite parts.
Know the organs and their parts.
Cecum is near the appendix and the beginning of the ascending colon.
Fundus is part of the stomach.
Duodenum is part of the small intestine.
Sigmoid is on the descending colon.
Intercalated discs are found in cardiac muscle.
Intervertebral discs are found between the vertebrae of the spine.
Organ Systems
Organ systems do not function independently of each other.
Medical Imaging
X-rays and CAT scans involve radiation.
MRIs do not involve radiation.
Epithelium
Keratin is a protein lining on dead cells in some types of epithelium.
Some cells have cilia (projections).
Microvilli increase surface area for absorption without using energy.
Most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine.
Energy and Wavelengths
Long wavelengths are associated with low energy.
The visible spectrum is between red and violet.
Ultraviolet, gamma rays, X-rays, and microwaves are outside the visible spectrum.
Connective Tissue
Epithelium is almost always attached to connective tissue.
Epithelium consists of tightly packed cells, while connective tissue has cells that are sporadic with a matrix ground substance and a thin basement membrane.
Cartilage
Cartilage is found on bones where they meet in the joint, specifically hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage).
Three types of cartilage:
Elastic cartilage (outer ear)
Fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, meniscus of the knee)
Hyaline cartilage (articulations at the joints)
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light and rejects green light.
Two steps of photosynthesis:
Light reaction
Takes place in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast.
Calvin cycle (dark reaction)
Takes place in the stroma (liquid portion of the chloroplast).
Trophic Levels
Species that eat only meat are carnivores.
Species that eat only vegetables are herbivores.
Species that eat both are omnivores.
Species that make their own organic food are autotrophs (most plants).
Animals are heterotrophs.
Plants are phototrophs, using light as their energy source.
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
GERD is a digestive disorder involving gas production and reflux.
Nerves and Synapses
The area where two nerves meet is called a synapse.
The bump that the axon rises out of is called the axon hillock.
Neurons generally have one axon, but the number of dendrites can vary.
Cellular Respiration
First step in both anaerobic and aerobic pathways: Glycolysis
Anaerobic pathway:
Glycolysis (net gain of 2 ATP)
Fermentation (2 ATP)
Aerobic pathway:
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle (2 ATP)
Electron transport chain (28-36 ATP)
Muscle Types
Smooth muscles control blood vessels.
Adipose tissue is connective tissue (not a primary tissue type).
Not all striated muscles are voluntary; cardiac muscle is striated but involuntary.
Alimentary Canal
Parts of the alimentary canal:
Esophagus
Duodenum
Anus
Oral cavity
Digestion
Digestion does not begin in the stomach
A species with the same orifice for ingestion and elimination has a gastrovascular cavity.
Glial Cells
Glial cells are smaller and more numerous than neurons.
Ligaments and Tendons
Ligaments attach bone to bone.
Tendons attach muscle to bone.
Shoulder Injuries
Isometric contraction: Muscle length stays the same (e.g., pressing against a desk).
Pain on extreme major motions but no pain on isometric contraction indicates a ligamentous problem.
Pain on isometric contraction indicates a musculotendinous problem.
Musculotendinous injury: Strain
Ligamentous injury: Sprain
Both strains and sprains can be mild, moderate, or severe.
Epithelium and Blood Vessels
Epithelium is not rich in blood vessels.
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle cells are referred to as fibers because they are very long.