The End of the Cold War and Collapse of Communism

The End of the Cold War (1976-1985)

'New Cold War', 1976-85

A new period of competition arose between the Soviet and Western blocs starting in 1976, marking a significant deterioration in US-Soviet relations to levels unseen since the early 1960s. Olav Njolstad noted it wasn't an overnight collapse but a gradual process fueled by multiple events.

Weakening of Détente in Europe

The Soviet Union's deployment of SS-20 medium-range nuclear missiles in Central Europe in 1976 triggered alarm within NATO. NATO responded by initiating a policy where, if an arms agreement couldn't be reached with the Soviets, the U.S. would deploy nuclear-equipped missiles in Europe by 1983.

President Reagan proposed the destruction of all medium-range nuclear missiles by both countries. The Soviets rejected this, viewing disarmament talks as a threat to their military advantage. Between 1983 and 1987, the U.S. installed missiles in West Germany (FRG), Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy, diminishing the Soviet strategic advantage.

The Invasion of Afghanistan

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ended the US-Soviet détente.

Communist Coup in Afghanistan, April 1978

In 1973, Mohammed Daoud Khan seized power from King Zahir Shah. Afghanistan remained a Non-Aligned state, but the USSR had significant influence. Daoud's modernization efforts were opposed by traditional Afghan leaders and Muslim religious authorities, who saw the reforms as attacks on ethnic and religious traditions. Communists also criticized Daoud for slow modernization.

In April 1978, the Afghan Communist Party, divided into Parcham and Khalaq factions, overthrew Daoud's government. They implemented radical reforms that faced opposition from conservative Muslims. Attempts to modernize agriculture by seizing land from peasants were unpopular. The USSR increased financial and military aid but did not send troops initially.

Reasons for Soviet Intervention

By November 1979, the USSR decided that President Hafizullah Amin had to be removed for the communist regime to survive. There were fears Amin would seek assistance from the U.S., potentially creating a U.S. ally on the Soviet Union’s southern border.

The USSR also aimed to prevent Afghanistan from falling under the control of a conservative Islamic government, fearing the spread of Islamic militancy to its central Asian republics, especially given the establishment of an Islamic regime in Iran in 1979.

Soviet Military Operations

Between December 24 and 27, 1979, 50,000 Soviet troops were flown into Kabul. On December 27, Soviet soldiers attacked the presidential palace, executed Amin, and replaced him with Babrak Kamal. The Soviets aimed to quickly crush the Muslim fundamentalist rebels and stabilize the government for a rapid withdrawal.

Soviet forces occupied Kabul and major cities but faced two major military problems:

  1. The Afghan army disintegrated, leaving Soviet forces to conduct all military actions.

  2. Babrak Kamal lacked the support of the Afghan people, who saw him as a Soviet puppet. This led to support for the mujahedin, who wanted to reestablish an Islamic government.

By 1985, it was clear that the Soviets could not win the war. The conflict demoralized Soviet forces and became a significant financial strain.

US Reaction, 1979-87

The U.S. government viewed the invasion of Afghanistan as a threatening development in Soviet foreign policy. There were fears the Soviets intended to control Afghanistan as a step towards expansion to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Jimmy Carter responded by banning grain exports to the USSR, and the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the SALT II Treaty. The U.S. also boycotted the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow and financed weapons for the Afghan mujahedin through agencies in Pakistan.

By 1985, the U.S. cooperated with conservative Islamic states like Saudi Arabia to obtain more funding for weapons. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan sent the mujahedin new ground-to-air missiles, diminishing Soviet air superiority.

People’s Republic of China (PRC)

The PRC denounced the invasion, cancelled Sino-Soviet talks, and increased arms supply to the guerrillas. The invasion also brought the PRC and U.S. closer. The PRC defense minister visited the U.S. and approved sending advanced military equipment to Afghanistan.

Western Europe

The FRG, France, and Britain condemned the invasion at the UN but were unwilling to risk the détente from Ostpolitik. Many Europeans saw Afghanistan as similar to the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, where the USSR preserved communist governments in neighboring states.

Solidarity in Poland, 1980-82

Poland was militarily important in the Soviet bloc because it was the geographical link between the Soviet Union and the GDR and provided one-third of Eastern European armed forces in the Warsaw Pact. It was also economically important due to its high levels of industrialization. However, Poland's communist government struggled to solve economic and political problems.

The Baltic Crisis, 1970-1

Unlike other COMECON states, Poland's agriculture was not collectivized, protecting small-scale farmers but discouraging capitalist agricultural policies. Farms remained small and inefficient. In 1970, the government tried to improve farming by increasing food prices by 30\%. This led to demonstrations and strikes from shipyards. The Soviet government recommended replacing Gomulka with Edward Gierek. Peace was restored by freezing food prices and securing a loan from the USSR.

June 1976 Riots

Gierek borrowed heavily from Western Europe to import Western technology to make the Polish economy more competitive. By 1975, Poland was increasingly indebted. The government raised food prices by 60\% in June 1976, triggering riots and forcing the government to retreat. This led to the formation of the Workers’ Defence Committee to aid those arrested by communist authorities and their families.

Political Opposition

In 1975, Gierek attempted to reform the constitution to give the central government more power and confirm the role of the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP). This was seen as an attempt to tighten control, leading to opposition:

  • Groups dedicated to human rights were established, exploiting Basket 3 of the Helsinki Accords.

  • Underground newspapers secretly published ideas from outside government channels.

Opposition groups extended activities within Poland and contacted sympathizers abroad while facing repression. In May 1979, Pope John Paul II, from Poland, visited his home country. His popularity demonstrated a disconnection between Polish citizens and their government.

The Emergence of Solidarity (Solidarność)

By mid-1980, Poland faced an economic crisis worsened by rising oil prices and a global recession. The government failed to modernize its economy. When food prices rose in August 1980, strikes broke out across the country. In Gdansk, 20,000 workers led by Lech Wałęsa took over the Lenin Shipyards. This sparked the birth of Solidarity (Solidarność), the first independent trade union in a Soviet-bloc country. The government signed the Gdansk Agreement on August 31, 1980, granting Solidarity legal recognition, the right to strike, freedom of speech, and media access but still acknowledged PUWP’s leading role.

By December 1981, Solidarity had nearly 8 million members, gaining support from all social classes and the Catholic Church, posing a major political threat.

Threat of Soviet Intervention, December 1980

After Edward Gierek was replaced, Prime Minister Stanisław Kania faced pressure from Brezhnev and other Warsaw Pact leaders to crack down on “anti-socialist opposition forces.” Erich Honecker of the GDR urged Soviet military intervention. In early December 1980, Warsaw Pact troops mobilized, but Brezhnev held back, persuaded by Kania’s promise to restore control without external help. U.S. warnings also influenced the decision.

Martial Law, 1981

Poland's economic situation worsened throughout 1981, leading to severe shortages and rationing. Attempts to form a joint national council involving the PUWP, Solidarity, and the Catholic Church failed. General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law in December 1981, resulting in:

  • The arrest of Solidarity’s leadership

  • The deployment of soldiers to suppress strikes

  • Rule by the Polish army

  • The outlawing of Solidarity in October 1982

Jaruzelski’s decision allowed the PUWP to regain control temporarily.

US and NATO Reaction

The imposition of martial law drew condemnation from the U.S. and NATO. The United States called for sanctions against the USSR and demanded the cancellation of a proposed Soviet gas pipeline to Western Europe. Western European nations rejected this proposal but restricted the export of advanced technologies to the Eastern bloc.

Years of Tension, 1981-84

In January 1981, Ronald Reagan became US president. His approach included:

  • Hostile speeches about the USSR and communism

  • Massive increase in US spending between 1981 and 85

  • Rejection of the SALT II Treaty

  • Development of missiles in Western Europe

  • Support for the Mujahedin in Afghanistan

Yuri Andropov

In November 1982, Brezhnev died and was replaced with Yuri Andropov. In 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), an anti-ballistic missile shield composed of nuclear missiles and laser-armed satellites to protect the US, which potentially ended the balance of power between the superpowers. On September 1, 1983, tensions increased when a Soviet fighter aircraft destroyed a South Korean passenger aircraft, killing 269 people. The USSR refused to accept responsibility, and Andropov stated that his government could no longer do business with the US.

Reduced Tensions, 1984-5

At the end of 1983, Reagan concluded that relations with the USSR had to be improved. Tensions between September and December 1983 convinced Reagan of the real possibility of war. Konstantin Chernenko became Soviet leader after Andropov's death in February 1984 and agreed to reopen arms negotiations with the United States. These talks, concerning the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), had broken down in 1983. The renewal of arms negotiations marked a slight thaw in US–Soviet relations. The START talks officially resumed in March 1985, the same month Chernenko passed away and was succeeded by Mikhail Gorbachev.

Mikhail Gorbachev and Renewed Détente, 1985-89

When Mikhail Gorbachev became Secretary General of the Communist Party, his aim was to modernize the USSR. Key terms such as glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) set the tone for his reforms.

Gorbachev realized the USSR's survival depended on ending the Cold War and reforming the economy. When he gained power, the situation was complicated:

  • The collapse of détente in the late 1970s led to an expensive arms race the USSR could not afford.

  • The war in Afghanistan drained resources and had little chance of success.

  • The Soviet economy was hindered by inefficiency, corruption, and lack of technology.

USSR’s Economic Weakness

The key factor for the collapse of the USSR and the COMECON states was economic weakness. Until the 1960s, the Soviet economy had performed well, experiencing impressive growth in heavy industries. By the 1960s, it became bureaucratic and inflexible, functioning well for specific targets but poorly at supplying consumer goods.

In the early 1960s, Soviet economist Yevsei Liberman and Ota Sikin from Czechoslovakia suggested decentralizing the economy to allow local factory managers to make decisions on production, design, and pricing. Czechoslovakia started realizing these ideas between 1965 and 1968:

  • Greater freedom was given to factory managers.

  • Business taxes were reduced to encourage production.

  • Wage differentiation between skilled and unskilled workers.

  • Wholesale prices were determined by the market.

After the Prague Spring, economic experiments aimed at modernizing the economy were discouraged for fear of political concessions.

The 1970s

The 1970s were a period of economic change and crisis for capitalist economies. After the October War in 1973, oil prices quadrupled by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), weakening western economies and fueling inflation. Western countries modernized and adapted their economies to new industries and technologies.

The USSR and COMECON continued with centralized governmental control, emphasizing heavy industry. Détente and Ostpolitik opened the way for generous Western loans to COMECON. The USSR benefited from exploiting the global oil crisis by selling oil at higher prices to the West. From July 1975, the USSR increased charges on oil exported to eastern Europe by 30 \%, assuming Western loans would make the extra payment possible.

1980-5

COMECON states negotiated loans with the West, hoping to modernize their economies. By 1980, it was clear that the USSR and Eastern Europe had failed to develop new industries based on information technology. They had enlarged debt, and oil prices stabilized again, causing a decline in Soviet income.

Détente Renegotiated, 1985-8

Gorbachev wanted to prevent the introduction of the SDI by the U.S. He was determined to end the Cold War, modernize the Soviet economy, and liberalize the political system. Gorbachev sought to improve the Soviet system, not destroy it, by achieving international cooperation and coexistence.

Gorbachev was ready to announce major reductions in nuclear weapons to appease Reagan and appeal to those in the Western world seeking détente. In April 1985, he began reducing deployed missiles in eastern Europe. At the Reykjavik Summit in Iceland in 1986, he failed to persuade Reagan to stop developing the SDI in return for arms control treaties. Gorbachev unconditionally accepted a NATO plan for total withdrawal of medium-range missiles at the Washington Summit in December 1987.

Human Rights, 1986-88

In May 1986, Gorbachev announced that Basket III of the Helsinki Accords (human rights) was important. This led to:

  • Allowing dissidents like Andrei Sakharov to return to Moscow from exile

  • Releasing more dissidents from prison

  • Soviet Jews allowed to emigrate to Israel more easily

  • Foreign government media being permitted to broadcast freely within the USSR.

By 1988-89, these concessions created a new climate of intellectual and cultural freedom.

Global Détente

During the 1980s, main areas of proxy conflict included:

  • Afghanistan

  • Cambodia

  • Nicaragua

  • Angola

Afghanistan

Gorbachev realized Soviet policy had failed in Afghanistan and decided to withdraw Soviet troops as soon as possible. The Soviets replaced Babrak Karmal with Mohammed Najibullah, who they believed would form a government of national unity and negotiate peace. In April 1988, agreements were signed in Geneva between Pakistan and Afghanistan, with the USSR and US as sponsors. These consisted of:

  • Bilateral agreement saying neither state would interfere in each other’s internal politics

  • Neither state would allow militant groups to train within their territory

  • Withdrawal of Soviet troops by February 15, 1989

  • Afghan refugees permitted to return to Afghanistan

The agreements did not bring peace. The mujahedin fought on, while the USSR continued to give financial assistance to Najibullah's forces. The U.S. supported the mujahedin.

Cambodia

In 1979, Vietnam invaded Cambodia to overthrow the Khmer Rouge and replaced it with the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). Vietnamese military units remained in Cambodia. The PRC, the U.S. and the ASEAN states opposed the Vietnamese influence and supplied resistance groups. Gorbachev pressured Vietnam to withdraw its troops, leading to a cease fire negotiated by the UN Security Council in 1991.

Nicaragua

In July 1979, the Sandinista party overthrew the U.S.-backed regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The new government supported revolutionary activity in El Salvador, raising U.S. concerns. In 1981, Sandinista leaders secured military equipment from the USSR, escalating tensions. The U.S. eventually invaded Grenada, another small Caribbean state leaning toward socialism.

Angola and Namibia

By 1987, civil conflict in Angola intensified between the MPLA (supported by the USSR and Cuba) and the South African-backed UNITA forces. South African troops advanced into Angola but were stopped by Cuban airpower. The U.S. and USSR pressured all parties to reach a ceasefire, leading to the 1988 agreement for Namibia’s independence.

Ethiopia

The Soviet Union supported Mengistu’s Marxist regime in Ethiopia until 1989. However, the country sought financial aid from the U.S. in 1990. Mengistu was overthrown in May 1991.

PRC-Soviet Relations, 1976-89

After Mao’s death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping became the PRC's new leader by 1978. Deng broke with Mao Zedong's legacy by abandoning his policies and prioritizing economic modernization. He introduced market-oriented reforms, encouraging the use of capitalist methods. Alongside these economic changes, Deng implemented limited political reforms, while the CCP retained its dominant position.

US-PRC Cooperation

Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms coincided with a downturn in Soviet-US relations. Both the U.S. and the PRC saw mutual benefits in closer cooperation. For the U.S., stronger ties with China offered a way to counterbalance the Soviet Union. For the PRC, the relationship provided a means to isolate the USSR and gain access to advanced Western technology.

Despite differences over Taiwan, President Jimmy Carter continued efforts to improve relations with China. In 1978, an agreement was reached: the U.S. would end diplomatic relations with Taiwan while maintaining trade and cultural links, and the PRC agreed not to invade the island, enabling Washington and Beijing to exchange ambassadors. In 1979, Deng visited Hong Kong and confirmed China would reclaim the territory once the lease expired but promised it would retain a high degree of autonomy. During his visit to the U.S., China would allow the U.S. to build monitoring stations on its territory. In return, Carter increased trade with China and sold it military reconnaissance technology. When Deng informed Carter of his planned attack on Vietnam, Carter advised caution but clarified that the U.S. would not intervene.

End of the PRC-Soviet Dispute

Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and Vietnamese troops from Cambodia, coupled with the reduction of Soviet troops along the PRC-Soviet frontier, cleared the way for improving relations. In May 1989, after a summit meeting in Beijing between Gorbachev and the PRC, relations were fully restored.

Tiananmen Square

Gorbachev’s visit to Beijing in 1989 was overshadowed by the PRC's own political crisis. Glasnost and perestroika in the USSR had inspired Chinese students and intellectuals who wanted political reform in addition to economic ones. The day after Gorbachev left Beijing, the PRC government declared martial law and forcibly cleared demonstrators from Tiananmen Square, with many killed. This incident served as a warning that while the PRC intended to modernize its economy, the rule of the CCP was not to be challenged.

The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989-90

By withdrawing Soviet forces from Afghanistan and scaling back involvement in Africa, Mikhail Gorbachev redirected focus towards Europe, ensuring Soviet security through diplomacy and cooperation. In July 1988, Gorbachev rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, which had justified Soviet intervention in Eastern Bloc countries. By 1989, Gorbachev encouraged communist regimes in Eastern Europe to implement economic reforms and political liberalization. Reform could occur as long as communist parties retained overall control.

Eastern and southeastern Europe were broadly divided into three groups:

  1. Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria: open to reforms under communist leadership

  2. East Germany (GDR), Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania: resistant to reform

  3. Yugoslavia: grappling with intense nationalist movements

Developments in Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, 1988-89

By 1989, Gorbachev encouraged Eastern European communist states to introduce reforms. Some regimes reformed under communist dominance, while others resisted change.

Poland

In 1988, strikes across Poland forced General Jaruzelski’s government to re-legalize Solidarity and enter negotiations with it and the Catholic Church. The Soviets did not oppose this. All sides agreed not to challenge Poland’s relationship with the USSR or the Warsaw Pact. On April 7, 1989, the Round Table Agreements were signed, recognizing Solidarity and introducing a new constitution. Solidarity could compete for 35 \% of the lower house (Sejm) and all seats in the upper house, with 65 \% reserved for the PUWP.

Gorbachev supported the agreement. In the June elections, Solidarity won nearly all the seats it could contest. Solidarity formed a coalition government with a minority of communist ministers. Gorbachev reaffirmed the USSR’s non-intervention. After the fall of communism in the GDR and Czechoslovakia, Solidarity took full control. In January 1990, the PUWP dissolved and reformed as the Social Democrat Party. Lech Walesa became president.

Hungary

From the 1960s, János Kádár allowed some economic liberalization and tolerated criticism. By 1987, economic problems and corruption were worsening, and Hungary had the highest debt to the West. In May 1988, the ruling party (MSZMP) replaced Kádár with reformer Károly Grósz. In February 1989, the Party agreed to introduce a multi-party system. In June 1989, round table talks led to a deal for free elections in 1990. In the March 1990 elections, the Party received less than one percent of the vote and was excluded from the government.

Bulgaria

By 1989, Todor Zhivkov had alienated many within the Party through radical reforms and favoritism. He also implemented a “Bulgarianization” program, expelling 200,000 ethnic Turks. In July 1989, Petar Mladenov confided in Gorbachev about plans to shift Bulgaria’s direction. With support from the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence, Mladenov forced Zhivkov’s resignation on November 9. Negotiations followed, leading to a promise for free elections in June 1990. The Communist Party rebranded as a socialist party and won the majority in the 1990 elections with 52.75 \%. By 1991, the Party was defeated.

The GDR on the Brink of Collapse

The collapse of the GDR surprised both the Soviet Union and the West. German unification was a sudden event shaped by great power negotiations. In the 1970s, the GDR gained international legitimacy through diplomatic recognition. The Berlin Wall had blocked emigration, and most East Germans had no choice but to accept the regime.

Protest Movements

Ostpolitik and the Helsinki Accords encouraged demands for more liberal policies. By late 1987, Stasi reports warned of growing protest movements. Economic decline and unsustainable debt damaged the GDR's credibility. Starting in 1986, East Germans were allowed to visit relatives in the FRG with harsh conditions. The issue of travel and emigration became central to public discontent.

Hungary Opens Its Border

A turning point came on May 2, 1989, when Hungary began removing barriers along its border with Austria. East Germans began arriving in hopes of escaping to the West. In August, 200 East Germans forced their way into the West German embassy in Budapest, prompting the FRG to intervene. On September 1, Austria agreed to accept the refugees.

Growing unrest in the GDR

More East Germans gathered at the FRG embassy in Prague. Honecker reluctantly allowed those in Prague to leave but ordered the closure of the GDR–Czechoslovak border. On October 7, 10,000 tried to storm Dresden station. Between September 25 and October 16, Leipzig became the center of peaceful protests. The government refrained from using mass force. Honecker’s refusal to adapt led to his replacement by Egon Krenz on October 17. Krenz proposed changes preserving the SED’s dominance. On November 4, 500,000 people gathered in East Berlin demanding reforms. On November 9, the regime made a sweeping concession: citizens could apply for exit visas. Border guards opened the gates. The Berlin Wall had fallen.

Consequences of November 9th

The opening of the Berlin Wall had immediate consequences for Czechoslovakia and Romania.

The 'Velvet Revolution': Czechoslovakia

By 1989, Czechoslovakia remained in the hands of those responsible for the 1968 Prague Spring’s suppression. Opposition was minimal. Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec announced economic reforms. The number of opposition groups grew rapidly. On August 21, 1989, 10,000 demonstrators took to the streets. The political atmosphere changed after the fall of the Berlin Wall.

A state-sanctioned event turned into a protest. On November 19, twelve opposition groups formed the Civic Forum. Massive demonstrations forced Adamec to begin talks. On December 7, Adamec resigned, and a new government was formed. On December 29, Václav Havel was elected President. Havel and the Civic Forum negotiated the withdrawal of Soviet troops while maintaining Czechoslovakia’s membership in the Warsaw Pact. Czechoslovakia joined Poland and Hungary in advocating for the Pact’s dissolution.

Romania

The fall of the Berlin Wall and the Velvet Revolution inspired Romanians to remove Nicolae Ceaușescu. Ceaușescu’s regime was deeply unpopular due to economic policies, corruption, and nepotism. As early as November 1988, Gorbachev agreed to a plan to overthrow Ceaușescu. Revolt erupted in Timisoara and spread to Bucharest. On December 25, he and his wife were executed. The National Salvation Front (NSF) had been formed on December 22. The NSF won the majority, and Iliescu became President. Romania remained a member of the Warsaw Pact until its dissolution in 1991.

Yugoslavia and Albania

Yugoslavia

After its expulsion from Cominform in 1948, Yugoslavia followed a different path. By the 1960s and 1970s, it permitted greater freedoms. Economic and political problems led to its collapse by 1990. Yugoslavia became heavily reliant on foreign investment, and by 1989 inflation had soared to nearly 300 \%. Ethnic rivalries worsened. In January 1990, Prime Minister Ante Marković removed the Communist Party’s dominant role. Elections brought nationalist parties to power, and the republics soon demanded independence. This triggered a series of conflicts. Between 1991 and 2006, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Montenegro declared independence. The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) resulted in around 100,000 deaths and millions of displaced people.

Albania

Under Enver Hoxha, Albania broke off relations with the USSR in 1961. After Hoxha’s death in 1985, Ramiz Alia announced a limited reform programme in February 1989. Following the collapse of Ceaușescu’s regime, anti-communist unrest erupted. The government implemented further reforms. After demonstrations in December 1990, Alia legalised parties. In the 1991 elections, the Socialist Party of Albania won. In the 1992 elections, the Democratic Party achieved a decisive victory.

Unification of Germany

By late 1989, reform in East Germany accelerated. On November 13, Hans Modrow accepted a proposal for dialogue with opposition groups. At talks in December, he agreed that free elections would be held. The Communist Party received only 16.4 \% of the vote, while the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) won 40.8 \%. Germany’s division symbolized the start of the Cold War; its reunification would come to symbolize its end.

BONN-MOSCOW-WASHINGTON TALKS

Chancellor Kohl recognized support from the USSR, the US, Britain, and France was required. Gorbachev promised in December 1989 to ensure the GDR’s survival but weakened by January 1990. Gorbachev told Kohl that the Germans should decide. At a meeting on February 14, Bush introduced the “Two-Plus-Four” framework. Throughout the summer of 1990, negotiations took place. The USSR agreed to reunification and to a united Germany remaining in NATO in exchange for financial aid. On September 12, 1990, the Two-Plus-Four Treaty was signed, ending Germany’s post-war division.

At midnight on October 2, 1990, the GDR joined the FRG, and a unified Germany was born.

Concluding the Cold War

After the agreement of German reunification, the Cold War was officially ended in Paris in November 1990. Representatives of NATO and the Warsaw Pact signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, providing for the reduction of weapons, inspection and verification, and declared the countries were