Background to Late Antiquity: Art of the Hellenistic Period

The Hellenistic Period is defined as beginning with the conquests of Alexander the Great, spanning from approximately $330-323\text{ BCE}$ . The period itself is dated from $323-31\text{ BCE}$ .
Thematic Shifts: - Kingship Model: A fundamental transition occurred from the Classical model of democracy to autocracy. - Visual Culture: These political shifts had profound implications for art and architectural representation. - Connectivity: The era is marked by an international Greek culture and complex interactions with local traditions. - Cosmopolitan Worldview: Derived from the Greek word kosmos (meaning "world"), reflecting a globalized outlook.
Terminology and Definitions: - Hellenistic: Meaning "Greek"; derived from the name of the mythical ancestor figure Hellen. - Hellenes: The specific word the Greeks used to refer to themselves. - Hellenism: Refers to Greek culture, including language, literature, art, social customs, and ethical values.

Geographic Scope: Alexander’s empire stretched from Macedonia and Greece through Egypt, the Persian Empire, and into Central Asia and India.
Key Locations and Sites: - Europe/Mediterranean: Pella, Athens, Sparta, Byzantion, Rome, Carthage, Syracuse, Cyrene. - Asia Minor/Levant: Sardis, Ephesus, Miletos, Halicarnassos, Tarsos, Issus ( $333\text{ BCE}$ ), Tyre ( $332\text{ BCE}$ ), Damascus, Jerusalem. - Egypt: Alexandria (founded by Alexander), Memphis, Thebes, and the Oracle at Siwa ( $331\text{ BCE}$ ). - Mesopotamia and Persia: Gaugamela ( $331\text{ BCE}$ ), Babylon ( $331\text{ BCE}$ ), Susa ( $330\text{ BCE}$ ), Persepolis ( $330\text{ BCE}$ ), Ecbatana. - Central and South Asia: Bactra, Maracanda ( $328\text{ BCE}$ ), Alexandria Eschate, Taxila, and the Hyphasis river ( $326\text{ BCE}$ ).
Infrastructure and Movements: - The empire utilized the Persian royal road. - Campaigns involved mountain passes (Cilician Gates, Khyber Pass, Bolan Pass) and naval routes (Fleet of Nearchus, $326\text{ BCE}$ ). - Numerous towns were founded by Alexander, often named Alexandria, while existing towns were resettled.

Koinē Greek: Known as the "common dialect," it created an international Greek-speaking culture. It served as the language of the New Testament writings and eventually evolved into medieval and modern Greek.
Linguistic Geographics (Pre-Koinē Dialects): - Doric: Spoken in Sparta, Crete, Rhodes, and parts of Sicily/Italy. - Ionic: Spoken in Ephesus, Miletus, and various islands. - Attic: Centered in Athens. - Aeolic: Spoken in Lesbos and Thessaly. - Macedonian: The northern dialect of the ruling house.
Artistic Evidence of Cultural Spread: - Afghanistan: A banquet scene on a Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa ( $2\text{nd}-3\text{rd}\text{ Century CE}$ ). - Gandhara (Pakistan): Representations of Herakles and the Nemean lion ( $1\text{st Century}$ ); Figure of the Buddha placed within a Corinthian capital. - Bactria (Central Asia): Portrait of the philosopher Strato (\text{mid-}2\text{nd\text{ century BCE}); Corinthian capitals at Ai-Khanoum (before $145\text{ BCE}$ ).

Philip II: Father of Alexander the Great and architect of Macedonian power ( $359-336\text{ BCE}$ ).
The Great Tumulus at Vergina: A royal burial site containing the Tomb of Philip (c. $340-310\text{ BCE}$ ).
Architectural and Artistic Finds at Tomb II (attributed to Philip II, c. $335–315\text{ BCE}$ ): - Painted Frieze: A hunting scene with a height of $3\text{ ft } 9\frac{11}{16}\text{ in}$ ( $1.16\,m$ ). - Gold Larnax: Used to hold the remains of the king. - Royal Wreaths: An oak leaf wreath for Philip and a myrtle wreath for the Queen. - Military Gear: Bronze greaves, specialized armor, and a shield. - Furniture: Ivory fragments originally from a chryselephantine (gold and ivory) couch.

Core Ideals of the Ruler: - Military success. - Personal charisma. - Spectacle and performance. - Divinity.
Ruler Cults: Rulers were often considered divine during their lifetimes and became recipients of formal cult worship. - Visual Assimilation: Rulers were depicted with divine symbols and attributes of gods. - Materiality: Increased access to precious and semiprecious stones for royal art.
The Gonzaga Cameo (3\text{rd\text{ century BCE}): An agate cameo ( $15.7\,cm$ in height) likely depicting King Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Queen Arsinoe.
Defining "Cult": This refers to acts of veneration and ritual observance, including animal sacrifice and libations (pouring out liquids).

Demetrios Poliorketes: A hymn sung for him upon entering Athens (c. $291\text{ BCE}$ ) compared him to the sun and his friends to stars, calling him a "genuine god" not made of wood or stone. A votive stele dedicated to him dates from c. $323-200\text{ BCE}$ .
Queen Berenice II: Depicted as Agathe Tyche (the goddess of Good Fortune) on a faience libation vessel (Alexandria, c. $245-200\text{ BCE}$ ).
Arsino# II: A deified Ptolemaic queen depicted in amethyst and gold (c. $300\text{ BCE}$ ).
Divine Parentage of Alexander: Alexander claimed to be the son of the Egyptian god Amun (Ammon), a claim confirmed by the Oracle at the sanctuary of Zeus-Ammon at Siwa.
Numismatic Imagery: Tetradrachms (coins) issued by King Lysimachus of Thrace (minted in Ephesus, $297-281\text{ BCE}$ ) show Alexander with the Horns of Amun; the reverse depicts Athena with a winged Victory.

Major Successor Empires (c. $240\text{ BCE}$ ): - Antigonid Empire: Based in Macedonia. - Seleucid Empire: Large eastern territory including Babylon and Antioch. - Ptolemaic Empire: Based in Egypt (Alexandria). - Attalid Kingdom: Centered in Pergamum.
Syncretism: The merging or amalgamation of elements from multiple cultural traditions. - Ptolemy I Soter ( $305-282\text{ BCE}$ ): Portraits exist in both traditional Greek marble styles and Egyptian-style diorite. - Interpretatio graeca: The practice of identifying local, non-Greek deities with specific Greek gods.
Examples of Syncretic Deities: - Zeus-Ammon: Combination of the Greek king of gods and the Egyptian sun god. - Ishtar-Aphrodite: Combination of the Mesopotamian goddess of love/war and the Greek goddess of love (seen in alabaster figurines from Seleucid-Parthian Iraq, $2\text{nd century BCE}-1\text{st century CE}$ ).
Visual Analysis Framework: Analysis of these works focuses on shapes, lines, texture, depth/space, composition, and symmetry.