International History, 1870-1945

Learning Objectives:
- Understand economic, social, and cultural background of European imperialism.
- Learn how, when, and why countries developed empires in Africa and China.
- Understand the impact of empire-building on relations between European countries.
- Understand the circumstances of Japan and the USA and their rapid development into world powers.
Timeline: Key events from 1867 (Opening of the Suez Canal) to 1918 (Wilson's Fourteen Points speech).

European nations sought overseas possessions for wealth, prestige, and power (traditional pursuit).
Examples:
- Spain in South America (16th century).
- Britain and France in North America and India (18th century).
- Britain's Empire (early 19th century): New Zealand to Canada.
- Portugal exploring the African coast, Dutch competition from 17th century.
Early 19th-century decline in expansion due to costs (expensive wars and maintaining control). Britain lost control of 13 North American Colonies and Spain lost influence in South America.
Desire to exploit profitable ventures remained, leading to a new wave of imperialism (1871-1914) with focus shifting to Africa and Asia.

Economic and Political Motives

Mercantilism: Powerful European nations sought to increase wealth through controlled trade (limiting imports, increasing exports, accumulating gold/silver).
Overseas possessions offered cheap raw materials, labor, valuable goods (spices, silks), and guaranteed markets.
Private companies/businessmen profited (e.g., slave trade).
Decline of Mercantilism: Expensive to maintain control/protect trade routes, leading to wars (e.g., Britain in North America).
Economic theories (Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, 1776) suggested wealth based on production, not gold/silver and that imperial expansion, government control was unnecessary and undesirable. Government interference discouraged investment.

Economic Motives: Industrialization

Industrial Revolution prompted the need for raw materials and new markets. Industrialists sought investment opportunities.
Britain: Enjoyed early advantages (steam power, textiles, iron/steel). "The Workshop of the World" produced goods quickly/cheaply.
Competition: From European rivals, the USA. Railways (& Zollverein) transformed German states by 1850.
France: Expanded commercial interests in Africa (Algeria 1830-47), developed the 2nd most powerful navy by 1850-70 with bases in the Indian Ocean/Indo-China.

Economic Motives: The ‘Long Depression’

Price deflation (1873-1896) due to rapid industrialization > production outstripping demand.
Declining wages and job losses pressured governments to protect economies, leading to competition for overseas' markets.

Economic Motives: Competition for Raw Materials

Need for cotton, copper, rubber, tin (Africa & Asia).
Products valued in Europe: tea, silk (China), gold, diamonds (Transvaal), palm oil (West Africa).
John Hobson (1902): Imperialists needed new markets/investment outlets. Expansion necessary for production.

Political Motives: Growth of Nationalism

Borders in Europe settled by 1871. Expansion was sought overseas to enhance wealth, power, prestige, and influence.
Nationalism increased: Germany and Italy (establishing themselves), France wished to recover from the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Britain emphasized navy power (Naval Defence Act, 1889: ‘two power standard’).
Overseas possessions = national pride. France had a duty to extend culture/religion to backwards people. Bishop Lefèbvre, Pellerin and Puginier helped French military forces take control over parts of Vietnam.

Political Motives: Imperialism as Social Policy

Implemented due to emergence of a large working class demanded reform. Some senior politicians viewed overseas expansion as a way of diverting popular attention away from social, economic, and political inequalities.
Overseas expansion would provide finance for social reform and improved condition of working classes.

Political Motives: Strategic Control of Key Regions

Britain established a port in Cape Colony in southern Africa to protect ships trading with India/Far East.
Suez Canal (1869) shortened voyages; Britain took over Egyptian administration in 1882 to protect trade route

Activity 1.1 Discussion on Ferry and Fabri's justifications for imperial expansion.

1871-1914. Disagreement among historians on the 'newness' of it all. Some see it as earlier overseas efforts while others saw it as being fundamentally different.

Nature of ‘New Imperialism’

Geographic scope: Focused on Africa/Asia. Exploring African interiors: minerals/raw materials (Livingstone). Henri Mouhot expeditions to Siam, Cambodia, Laos, paved way for imperial control over Indo-China.
Maintaining peaceful relations: Prevent constant warfare > Treaty of Berlin (1885) laid rules for expansion in Africa to avoid confrontation > imperial nations collaborated against China.
New imperial countries: USA sought Central/South America control & Asian trade > developed navies/bases.
Japan: Industrial/military revolutions created conflict (Russo-Japanese war), subsequent rivalry with the USA.

Factors Enabling ‘New Imperialism’

Medical Improvement: Quinine (1817) treated malaria > access to African interior/Asian jungles > Medical advancement.
Technological Advancement: high-quality steel mass-produced (Bessemer’s system, after 1856), railroads and steamships for transport. Iron-hulled ships navigated rivers. Improved communication (telegraph). Fast-firing rifles, machine guns, heavy artillery overpowered Africans.

Opposition to Slavery

European governments banned the slave trade by 1820 saying that slavery was ‘repugnant to the principles of natural justice.