A&P Lab Exam study notes
A&P Lab Exam Study Notes (Chapters 1–4)
Chapter 1: The Laboratory Environment
Scientific Method
Observation – Notice something.
Question – Ask why/how it happens.
Hypothesis – Educated prediction.
Experiment – Test the hypothesis.
Data Collection – Record results.
Analysis – Interpret results.
Conclusion – Accept or reject hypothesis.
Example
Observation: Plant is dying.
Hypothesis: Plant needs more water.
Experiment: Water one plant more than another.
Conclusion: Compare growth.
Laboratory Safety
Wear proper PPE (gloves, goggles, lab coat if needed).
No eating or drinking.
Tie back long hair.
Report accidents immediately.
Read procedures before starting.
Follow instructor directions.
Proper Dissection Techniques
Cut away from yourself.
Use the correct tool.
Make shallow cuts.
Keep specimen moist when required.
Handle tissues carefully.
Common Dissection Instruments
Instrument | Function |
|---|---|
Scalpel | Cutting tissue |
Scissors | Dissecting/cutting |
Probe | Exploring structures |
Forceps | Grasping tissues |
Pins | Securing specimen |
Dissecting Tray | Holds specimen |
Biological Waste Disposal
Biological tissues → Biohazard container
Sharps (scalpels, needles) → Sharps container
Gloves and contaminated materials → Biohazard waste
Regular trash only for uncontaminated items
Chapter 2: Orientation to the Human Body
Anatomical Position
The body is:
Standing upright
Facing forward
Arms at sides
Palms facing forward
Feet flat and forward
Directional Terms
Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
Superior | Above |
Inferior | Below |
Anterior (Ventral) | Front |
Posterior (Dorsal) | Back |
Medial | Toward midline |
Lateral | Away from midline |
Proximal | Closer to attachment |
Distal | Farther from attachment |
Superficial | Near surface |
Deep | Farther from surface |
Quick Examples
Nose is superior to mouth.
Heart is medial to lungs.
Fingers are distal to elbow.
Skin is superficial to muscle.
Body Planes
Sagittal Plane
Divides body into left and right.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Divides body into front and back.
Transverse Plane
Divides body into upper and lower portions.
Body Cavities
Dorsal Cavity
Protects nervous system.
Cranial Cavity
Contains:
Brain
Vertebral (Spinal) Cavity
Contains:
Spinal cord
Ventral Cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Contains:
Heart
Lungs
Trachea
Esophagus
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Abdominal Cavity
Contains:
Stomach
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Spleen
Intestines
Pelvic Cavity
Contains:
Urinary bladder
Reproductive organs
Rectum
Serous Membranes
Membrane | Surrounds |
|---|---|
Pleura | Lungs |
Pericardium | Heart |
Peritoneum | Abdominal organs |
Layers
Parietal serosa = lines cavity wall
Visceral serosa = covers organ
Abdominal Quadrants
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Liver
Gallbladder
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Stomach
Spleen
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Appendix
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Sigmoid colon
Abdominal Regions
Region | Location |
|---|---|
Right Hypochondriac | Upper right |
Epigastric | Upper middle |
Left Hypochondriac | Upper left |
Right Lumbar | Middle right |
Umbilical | Center |
Left Lumbar | Middle left |
Right Iliac (Inguinal) | Lower right |
Hypogastric (Pubic) | Lower middle |
Left Iliac (Inguinal) | Lower left |
Surface Anatomy (Most Tested)
Term | Location |
|---|---|
Acromial | Shoulder |
Antebrachial | Forearm |
Antecubital | Front of elbow |
Axillary | Armpit |
Brachial | Arm |
Buccal | Cheek |
Calcaneal | Heel |
Carpal | Wrist |
Cephalic | Head |
Cervical | Neck |
Coxal | Hip |
Crural | Lower leg |
Digital | Fingers/Toes |
Femoral | Thigh |
Fibular (Peroneal) | Lateral leg |
Frontal | Forehead |
Gluteal | Buttock |
Hallux | Big toe |
Inguinal | Groin |
Lumbar | Lower back |
Mammary | Breast |
Manus | Hand |
Mental | Chin |
Nasal | Nose |
Occipital | Back of head |
Olecranal | Back of elbow |
Oral | Mouth |
Orbital | Eye |
Otic | Ear |
Palmar | Palm |
Patellar | Kneecap |
Pedal | Foot |
Pelvic | Pelvis |
Plantar | Sole of foot |
Pollex | Thumb |
Popliteal | Back of knee |
Pubic | Genital region |
Sacral | Between hips |
Scapular | Shoulder blade |
Sternal | Breastbone |
Sural | Calf |
Tarsal | Ankle |
Thoracic | Chest |
Umbilical | Navel |
Vertebral | Spine |
Organ Systems Overview
System | Main Function | Organs |
|---|---|---|
Integumentary | Protection | Skin, hair, nails |
Skeletal | Support | Bones, cartilage |
Muscular | Movement | Muscles |
Nervous | Rapid control | Brain, spinal cord |
Endocrine | Hormones | Pituitary, thyroid |
Cardiovascular | Transport | Heart, blood vessels |
Lymphatic | Immunity | Lymph nodes, spleen |
Respiratory | Gas exchange | Lungs, trachea |
Digestive | Nutrient absorption | Stomach, intestines |
Urinary | Waste removal | Kidneys, bladder |
Reproductive | Reproduction | Ovaries/testes, uterus |
Chapter 3: The Microscope
Five Microscope Rules
Carry with two hands.
Start on lowest power.
Use coarse focus only on low power.
Use fine focus on high power.
Clean lenses with lens paper only.
Magnification vs Resolution
Magnification
Makes image appear larger.
Resolution
Ability to distinguish two close objects as separate.
Higher magnification ≠ better resolution.
Compound vs Dissecting Microscope
Compound | Dissecting |
|---|---|
Thin specimens | Larger specimens |
Higher magnification | Lower magnification |
2D image | 3D image |
Microscope Parts and Functions
Part | Function |
|---|---|
Arm | Supports microscope |
Base | Bottom support |
Ocular | Eyepiece (10x) |
Objective Lenses | Main magnification |
Nosepiece | Rotates objectives |
Stage | Holds slide |
Mechanical Stage Controls | Move slide |
Condenser | Focuses light |
Iris Diaphragm | Controls light amount |
Substage Light | Light source |
Coarse Adjustment | Large focus changes |
Fine Adjustment | Precise focus |
Light Control | Adjusts brightness |
Magnification Formula
Total Magnification = Ocular × Objective
Example:
10x ocular × 40x objective = 400x total magnification
Field of View Formula
Diameter at High Power =
(Diameter at Low Power × Low Magnification) ÷ High Magnification
Example:
Dhigh=4.8×1040D_{high}=\frac{4.8\times10}{40}Dhigh=404.8×10
Answer:
= 1.2 mm
Chapter 4: Cell Structure and Membrane Transport
Cell Anatomy
Nucleus
Control center of cell.
Chromatin
Loose DNA.
Chromosomes
Condensed DNA during division.
Nucleolus
Makes ribosomes.
Nuclear Envelope
Double membrane around nucleus.
Nuclear Pores
Control movement in/out of nucleus.
Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer
Main membrane structure.
Hydrophilic heads = face water
Hydrophobic tails = face inward
Integral Proteins
Pass through membrane.
Peripheral Proteins
Attached to surface.
Cholesterol
Maintains membrane stability.
Glycocalyx
Cell identification and protection.
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Fluid portion.
Organelles
Specialized structures inside cell.
Organelles
Organelle | Function |
|---|---|
Ribosomes | Protein synthesis |
Rough ER | Makes proteins |
Smooth ER | Lipid synthesis, detoxification |
Golgi Apparatus | Modifies/packages proteins |
Lysosomes | Digest materials |
Peroxisomes | Detoxify harmful substances |
Mitochondria | Produce ATP |
Cytoskeleton
Structure | Function |
|---|---|
Microtubules | Support, transport |
Intermediate Filaments | Strength |
Microfilaments | Movement |
Centrioles | Cell division |
Passive Transport (No ATP)
Diffusion
Movement from high → low concentration.
Simple Diffusion
Directly through membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion
Uses transport proteins.
Osmosis
Movement of water.
Filtration
Movement due to pressure.
Osmotic Solutions
Hypotonic
Outside has less solute.
Water enters cell.
Cell swells.
Isotonic
Equal concentrations.
No net water movement.
Hypertonic
Outside has more solute.
Water leaves cell.
Cell shrinks.
Active Transport (Requires ATP)
Primary Active Transport
Uses ATP directly.
Example:
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Moves 3 Na⁺ out
Moves 2 K⁺ in
Secondary Active Transport
Uses stored concentration gradient energy.
Vesicular Transport
Endocytosis
Moves material INTO cell.
Phagocytosis
"Cell eating"
Pinocytosis
"Cell drinking"
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Uses receptors to bring specific substances inside.
Exocytosis
Moves material OUT of cell.
Cell Cycle & Mitosis
Interphase
G1
Cell grows.
S
DNA replicates.
G2
Prepare for division.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense
Nuclear envelope disappears
Spindle forms
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up in middle
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate
Move to opposite poles
Telophase
New nuclei form
Chromosomes uncoil
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides
Two daughter cells produced