APAH unit 7 notes

Mesoamerican Architecture, Sculpture, and Ritual at Yaxchilán and Tenochtitlan

Yaxchilán is a massive and complex architectural site designed for high-ranking individuals to visit. The site was built and dedicated to the patron Bird Jaguar IV, though his father, Lord Shield Jaguar II, was responsible for the creation of many of the sculptures found within the complex. A prominent figure featured in the art is Lady Xook, the queen, who is depicted in scenes of bloodletting. These ritual ceremonies involved cutting herself to commune with a vision of a serpent god. The purpose of such ceremonies was to facilitate her husband's ascension to the kingship and to maintain a religious connection with the divine. Notably, these structures were not designed to accommodate large crowds, indicating their exclusive and sacred nature.

The Templo Mayor, originally located in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, was rediscovered beneath modern structures. The site reflects the Aztec belief in a pantheon of many gods. Found at the bottom of the temple stairs is a stone known as the Coyolxauhqui stone, or "bells-on-her-cheeks." This stone depicts a deity who was betrayed by her brother and subsequently rolled down the temple stairs, causing her blood to splatter upon the stone. The complex also contained an intricate calendar stone and artifacts from preceding civilizations, such as a mask from the Olmec culture. The inclusion of these older artifacts demonstrates the power of the Aztec culture and its practice of evacuating or reclaiming pieces from previous civilizations to assert their own dominance.

Sacred Structures and Material Culture of the Andean Region

Chavín de Huántar serves as an underground religious structure featuring the Lanzón Stele, an upright stone slab that depicts the chavín deity as a hybrid and a being that is half human and half jaguar. Access to this stele and participation in its religious ceremonies was restricted to high-status individuals who would pray to it. A secondary relief on the exterior of the site also features jaguar motifs. Among the artifacts found within the site are nose ornaments, which served as prominent signs of wealth and status. Because wealthy individuals were buried with these ornaments, they were likely worn to signifies the wearer's transformation into another creature, such as the serpent god. The design of the architecture at Chavín de Huántar was specifically intended to enhance acoustics, allowing the sounds of chanting to be heard throughout the space. The society itself is noted for maintaining equality between women and men.

The Ruler's Feather Headdress is believed to have been worn by an Aztec emperor overthrown by Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs utilized the vibrant feathers of the Quetzal bird, which were processed by specialized feather workers known as Nahuati. Currently located in Austria, the headdress is a subject of repatriation efforts, as the original was stolen by the Spanish during the colonization of Mexico and became part of the collection of King Charles V of Habsburg, who ruled both Spain and Austria. While the original is kept in a glass box and cannot be seen in its full, expressive effect, replicas are produced in Mexico. Wearing the headdress was intended to make the wearer appear god-like and signaled the trade and expansion of the empire, given the exotic origins of the birds.

Cusco, the capital of the Incan Empire in Peru, is characterized by terrace farming, which utilized stair-like structures on hills for the gardening of maize. The city follows a plan shaped like a puma and honors the sun god, Inti. Architectural practices in Cusco included Ashlar masonry, where stones were cut into jagged, jigsaw-like patterns to lock together by weight, providing stability against earthquakes. Following the Spanish conquest, many buildings underwent spolia, such as a Catholic monastery being built over a traditional Incan structure, resulting in an Incan-Catholic synthesis. Cusco also featured a system where rulers would select "chosen women" to be brought into the service of the state.

The Maize Cob is a metal sculpture created using the repoussé technique, which involves hammering metal from the reverse side to create a relief. This object was found in the temple garden of the city of Cusco and represented maize, the main crop of the empire. Black corn was depicted using silver oxides to ensure a good harvest and long life for the people. This focus on agricultural productivity is further reflected in the royal residence of Machu Picchu. Built for the king and his assistants, the site includes various ceremonial buildings and is situated near sacred mountains. The site contains an observatory with windows aligned to the summer and winter solstices to track the seasons for harvesting. At the highest point of Machu Picchu is the Intihuatana stone, a sundial that measures equinoxes by the absence of a shadow, connecting the sun and the earth to aid the harvest.

North American Indigenous Art and Architectural Traditions

The All-T'oqapu Tunic was a status symbol worn by important Incan rulers. It is characterized by t'oqapu, which are individual rectangles containing common patterns that indicate the wearer's high status in society. These tunics were made from camelid fiber, such as alpaca or llama fur, and were woven by the "chosen women" using a back-strap loom. This emphasis on high knot counts and intricate patterns reinforced the social hierarchy.

Mesa Verde, located in Colorado near the Four Corners, is a National Park featuring cliff dwellings built by the Ancestral Puebloans, also known as the Anasazi. The dwellings were carved under the cliffs of flat-topped mountains, or mesas, to provide protection from the sun. The site includes the Cliff Palace and numerous kivas, which are circular underground rooms used for ceremonies. Although the interiors featured geometric art, many artifacts were historically removed to museums. However, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) now allows tribes to reclaim these artifacts. The site was eventually abandoned due to a significant drought.

The Great Serpent Mound is an earthwork in the shape of a snake located near the Mississippi River. Created by the Mississippi tribe for agricultural and calendar purposes, the mound's head aligns with the summer solstice sunset, while its tail aligns with the winter solstice. It was constructed around the same time as the Bayeux Tapestry and the appearance of Halley's Comet, which may have served as a model for its design. This mound demonstrates the tribe's sophisticated understanding of solstices as they related to their farming needs.

The Bandolier Bag was a Native American art form inspired by European beadwork and the bags worn by Spanish soldiers for carrying guns. These bags were made by women for both men and women to wear. Following the Indian Removal Act initiated by Andrew Jackson, the artistic style traveled with the tribes from New York to Oklahoma. The bags often featured silk tassels, indicating a trade connection with Asia.

In British Columbia, the First Nations people—a term used in Canada for Native Americans—created Transformation Masks for use in Potlatch ceremonies. These ceremonies took place in a "Big House," where participants would watch a "dance to the mask." The masks used strings to pull open and transform from a bird, such as an eagle, into a human during the dance. For a period, these ceremonies were banned and many masks were destroyed because British colonial authorities misunderstood the rituals, fearing they involved cannibalism.

Painted Elk Hides reflect the influence of trade, as white settlers brought oil paints from Europe. These hides often depicted everyday activities such as hunting bison and the use of horses. However, many of these paintings provided a nostalgic view of a past that no longer existed, specifically created for the tourist market to show a time when Indians did not have to fight for food. Similarly, the Black-on-Black ceramic vessel, produced through a process of wood-fire curing and stone polishing, was a communal activity. These vessels were purely decorative and sold to tourists, demonstrating a non-native interest in indigenous art.

African Architectural Developments and Royal regalia

Great Zimbabwe was the most developed civilization in pre-colonial sub-Saharan Africa, though it was eventually deserted due to drought and deforestation. The Shona people built the site as a ruler's court, serving as both a home and a meeting place; the word Zimbabwe derives from the Bantu language. The site features various walls whose defensive purpose is unknown and an ornamental conical tower. The tower is designed to look like a granary, serving as a symbol of abundance and fertility. During the colonial period, Cecil Rhodes enslaved the local population and mined diamonds, renaming the region Rhodesia. Following independence, the nation was renamed Zimbabwe after the historic site.

The Benin Wall Plaques depict the Oba (ruler) and his royal attendants. This style, known as Benin Bronze, was stolen by the British and placed in museums. In these depictions, the Oba is shown with an enlarged head to signify wisdom. The art shows the influence of trade with the Portuguese, who brought horses and motifs such as the rosette, which resembled the European cross. Because of the hot climate, the Oba is often depicted covered with leaves.

The Golden Stool of the Ashanti people is believed to have fallen from the sky. It is considered more important than the ruler because it holds the sunsum, or the spirit and energy of the Ashanti people. To protect this identity, the stool is never sat upon and is kept on its own throne, flipped on its side. Osei Tutu unified the African tribes under a federal system using the stool as a symbol. During British colonial conflict, King Prempeh I was exiled, but the stool was hidden and protected from destruction. It was only un-hidden following the gain of independence.

Ndop are posthumous portrait figures made of deceased rulers. These figures are depicted kneeling with eyes closed in a state of contemplation and a large head to indicate wisdom. They feature royal regalia, such as headresses and belts, and serve as a surrogate to hold the spirit of the deceased. Similarly, Power Figures (Nkisi n'Kondi) are used to formalize agreements. A person in the tribe known as an Nganga oversees the process, which involves licking a nail and hammering it into the figure's body to signify a signature. Breaking the contract would result in the spirit coming after the offender. The figures have a hole for "spirit medicine" to maintain the health of the spirit represented.

Gender Roles, Masks, and Social Societies in African Art

The Female (pwo) mask was worn by men during masquerades to honor the women of the tribe, particularly in a matriarchal society. The mask features white powder around closed eyes to signify the third eye and wisdom related to childbirth. These masks were eventually buried with the owners upon their death. In contrast, the Mblo portrait mask is used to honor specific important women in society, such as a stepmother. During ceremonies, a person would dress in the subject's clothes and the mask to dance. These masks idealize the subject rather than providing a literal likeness, using closed eyes to represent wisdom.

The Bundu mask is used by the Sande Society, a secret society of older women who take girls into the forest to teach them how to become women during puberty. This period is described as a liminal space. Before returning to society to get married, the girls paint their faces with white clay. The mask, which covers the entire body with palm tree fiber, features rolls of fat to symbolize fertility and a small face to signify silence and a lack of gossip. The mask is intended to look like a chrysalis, representing the transformation into adulthood.

In Igboland, Nigeria, individuals of the Igbo tribe may commission an Ikenga (shrine figure) to celebrate personal achievements and physical strength. These figures depict a human with animal attributes, typically holding a sword and the head of an enemy to signify a warrior's status. The horns and the enlarged head emphasize both physical power and wisdom. This reflects an African artistic priority on ideas and symbolism rather than physical likeness.

The Lukasa, or memory board, is a memory aid used by the Mbudye Society in the Congo to remember and perform tribal history. The user presses the beads on the board to facilitate the memorization of the story. Meanwhile, the Bamileke people use the Aka Elephant Mask, which features leopard patterns and elephant features like ears and trunks. Worn by the Kiosi society, the mask symbolizes the king's power and the belief that the king can transform into an elephant and a leopard can transform into a human.

Reliquary figures (Byeri) are used by semi-nomadic tribes to protect the remains of the deceased. These figures are placed on top of caskets containing divine body parts and act as talismans. They emphasize themes of life and fertility through the depiction of an umbilical cord at the belly button. Like many other African masks, they feature closed eyes to denote wisdom and have influenced European modern art. Finally, the Veranda Post, created by the named artist Olowe of Ise, depicts a king and his senior wife. In this composition, the senior wife is taller and more important than the king because she is the one who crowns him and provides maternal support; the king's power would not exist without her. The post also features a junior wife, who is less important and responsible for children, and a trickster god who acts as a protector.