Open-book, open-note exam; you can work from anywhere with live Wi‑Fi
TAs and instructor are available to help if you take it in class
Cheating considerations
Because you can look up anything, cheating is discouraged and not feasible to monitor perfectly
AI tools are not useful for these questions (class-specific, applied content); not expected to be helpful
Collaboration rules
You cannot work with other students on the exam
Timing and format
Start time: 12{:}30
Time limit: 35 minutes
Number of questions: 34
Exam design rationale
Parameters are set to allow taking the exam in multiple locations while still enabling success
Progress is not saved if you restart; you’ll get a different version if you retake (some overlap, but not identical)
Preparatory takeaway
The three to four questions in the assignments can earn full credit if submitted on time
Q&A and topics to be covered next
Methods of problem solving
Heuristics and biases
Language
Concepts and representations
Concept definition
A concept is a mental category that groups objects or events that share common properties
Example question: How do you know what makes something a “cup”?
Consider necessary features: for a dog, questions include whether four legs, barking, or other features are necessary
Representations
Analog representations
Representations that correspond to sensory features of the stimulus
Example: pumpkin pie
If I say “pumpkin pie,” you might imagine smell, taste, the crust crack, etc.
Symbolic representations
Do not rely on sensory features; are more abstract/meaning-based
Prototypes
A highly typical or representative example of a category
Example: apple as a prototype of a fruit
Exemplars
Actual specific instances stored in memory
Example: a particular apple you think of when asked to think of a fruit or dog (e.g., your own dog or a specific apple)
Schemas
Integrated collections of concepts that guide understanding and action about topics or situations
Demonstration of schemas: many students raised their hands when asked if they’d heard of the word “schema” because they inherently use one
Functional fixedness
The tendency to view objects only in their typical use, which limits problem solving
Candle-and-wall mounting example
Common idea: mount candle to wall using wax or matches
Less common but creative solution: empty a box of pins, use the pins to attach the box to the wall, place candle in the box
Functional fixedness can hinder alternative uses, but also indicates brain engagement and normal cognitive processing
How representations affect problem solving
People approach problems differently based on how they represent problems in memory
Link to broader problem-solving techniques
Problem solving and heuristics
Problem solving strategies
Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution, but can be time-consuming
Example: enumerating every newspaper and calling every police department to verify Robert Downey Jr.’s arrest history
Heuristic
A probable strategy that is faster but does not guarantee a correct solution
Used routinely due to practical constraints
Why we use heuristics
Informational and processing constraints: limited cognitive resources and time
Heuristics provide quick, useful judgments, though they can introduce biases
Availability heuristic
Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind
Examples:
Are people more likely to die of diabetes or homicide? People often say homicide because it’s more salient, but diabetes is more common
Tornado vs. lightning vs. airplane part accidents vs. shark attacks; people often pick the more sensational option
Consequences
Salience and memorable events skew judgments away from statistical reality
Illustrative experiments and anecdotes
Mississippi River anchoring task: initial numbers (e.g., 500 vs. 5,000 miles) influence subsequent estimates despite factual relationships
Car attributes and anchoring: order of presented features (stylish, gas mileage, service record, etc.) affects preference due to initial anchors
Anchoring effect
The first information encountered serves as an anchor that biases subsequent judgments
Examples discussed in class include estimates and even everyday first impressions
Important nuance: anchors can be numerical or non-numerical judgments
False consensus effect
Tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs or behaviors
Example: a student asked to predict how many peers would act on a billboard experiment based on their own willingness
Demonstrates how personal perspective is projected onto others
Confirmation bias
Tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs
Hannah study (poor vs wealthy background) showing how background information influenced judgments about academic promise
Real-world relevance: contributes to polarization and selective information processing in public discourse
Law of contagion (sympathetic magic)
The belief that contact between things creates a lasting connection, transferring properties
Examples:
Apple juice in a dirty cup remains suspect even after transferring to a clean cup
The idea that objects in contact share attributes, influencing decisions
Language and its implications for bias and reasoning
Availability of information shapes judgments and belief formation
Language: structure, development, and biology
Language as a system
A system for communicating thoughts and feelings; also a set of signals that vary by geography
Enables connection across time (written text) and space
Speech
The oral expression of language
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound in spoken language
Humans can produce about 100 distinct phonemes; English uses about 40 of these
Language development in infancy
Babbling at around six months; all phonemes produced by infants initially
By around one year, infants begin to limit sounds to those in their native language; this helps explain why accents are hard to remove with age
By early childhood, phoneme inventory is restricted to the language's sounds
Compared to other animals, human phoneme inventories are uniquely large and language learning is facilitated by exposure
Syntax and semantics
Syntax: internal structure and rules of sentence formation; most languages have distinct syntax rules
Broca’s area (transcripted as “borbous area”) is a brain region associated with syntax; damage can cause Broca’s aphasia, where sentence structure is impaired though vocabulary may remain intact
Semantics: meaning of words and sentences; smallest unit of meaning is a morpheme (e.g., “walk” vs. “walking” differ by a morpheme)
Pragmatics
How context influences interpretation and what information is being requested or conveyed
Example: interpreting a question about directions to the bathroom vs. asking for general information
Innateness and universal language development
Language is largely innate in humans; children across cultures pass through similar developmental stages
Children acquire language with relatively little explicit correction; they converge on rules naturally and spontaneously
Some children develop their own communication systems when isolated or in shared child groups
Nature vs. nurture in language learning
Interaction with caregivers accelerates language development; environment shapes the rate and style of acquisition
Sensitive periods and critical periods influence how easily language is learned; after certain ages, acquiring native-like pronunciation and grammar becomes harder
Stages of language development (typical trajectory)
First weeks: infant vocalizations (gestures and sounds) begin ( transcript mentions “heart is screaming” as a garbled phrasing; intended to reflect early vocalizations )
4–6 months: exposure to and differentiation of phonemes; infants begin to read lips and distinguish native vs. non-native sounds
By around 12 months: emergence of simple words
By around 18 months: overgeneralization of rules (e.g., overgeneralizing grammar rules)
By around 2 years: telegraphic speech (two-word phrases that convey essential meaning)
Language in other species
Some primates can learn signs or symbols and communicate effectively in limited contexts
However, such communication is typically not as generative or as innate as human language; it lacks the fully developed syntactic and semantic flexibility of human language
Experts often view animal communication as not equivalent to human language, though it provides insight into cognitive capacities and the evolution of communication
Overall implications
Language is integral to social interaction and collective problem solving; it shapes how we think and share information
The interplay of biology (brain areas, phoneme production, critical periods) and environment (caregiver interactions, exposure) underpins language learning
Understanding language development informs education, cognitive science, and approaches to multilingualism and social communication
Practical connections and takeaways
Exam design and study habits
Open-book exams require knowing where to find information quickly in your notes
Practice organizing notes for rapid retrieval during time-limited tests
Heuristics as tools and pitfalls
Develop awareness of biases such as anchoring, confirmation bias, and false consensus to improve critical thinking and evidence evaluation
Use structured problem-solving approaches (algorithm when appropriate, heuristics when quick judgment is needed) and cross-check results when possible
Language awareness in everyday life
Recognize the role of pragmatics in communication; miscommunications often arise from differing expectations rather than lack of knowledge
Consider innate language development and the importance of caregiver interaction when supporting young learners or multilingual development
Ethical and societal relevance
The confirmation bias and polarization observed in society highlight the importance of seeking diverse sources and evidence
Awareness of anchoring and availability bias can improve decision-making in media consumption, health, and public policy
Foundational principles and real-world relevance
Concepts, representations, prototypes, exemplars, and schemas shape how we categorize, recall, and reason about the world
Functional fixedness illustrates the balance between cognitive limits and creative problem solving
Language structure and development underpin education, communication technologies, and cross-cultural interaction
Quick reference: key terms and examples
Concept: mental category that groups based on shared properties
Analog representation: sensory-based mental image (e.g., pumpkin pie senses)
Symbolic representation: abstract meaning without direct sensory ties
Prototype: most representative example (apple as a fruit prototype)
Exemplar: specific remembered instance (your dog, Fluffy)
Schema: integrated network guiding interpretation and action
Functional fixedness: difficulty seeing novel uses of familiar objects