Psychology: Foundations, Methods, and Research Design (Study Notes)

First Lab (Wundt): Studied “atoms of the mind” (early focus on basic mental processes).
Early Schools:
- Structuralism (Titchener): Introspection as a method to study conscious experience.
- Functionalism (James): Focus on adaptive thinking and how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment.
Key Pioneers:
- Mary Whiton Calkins: First woman APA president.
- Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to earn a PhD in psychology (in the 1920s).
1960s: Behaviorism — Scientific study of observable behavior (John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner).
Freudian Psychology: Emphasis on the unconscious mind and the role of childhood experiences.
Humanistic Psychology: Focus on growth potential and self-actualization (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow).
Biological Influences: Genetics and physiological bases of behavior.

Psychological Influences: Learned fears and conditioned responses.
Social-cultural Influences: Expectations, friends, family, and social context.
Cognitive Revolution: Emphasis on mental processes like perception, memory, and problem solving.
Evolutionary Psychology: Behavior and mind shaped by natural selection.
Biopsychology Approach: Integrates biological, psychological, and social influences.
Psychology as a scientific discipline uses the scientific method to build knowledge.

Psychologists support scientific attitudes with the scientific method.
Theory: Explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis: Testable predictions that support or lead to revision of theories.
Operational Definition: Clear, precise, measurable definitions of concepts.
Replication: Repeating studies with different participants, materials, and settings to assess reliability.
Preregistration: Public sharing of planned study design, hypothesis, and analysis plans.
Analyzing Research Results:
- Meta-analysis: Combines results of multiple studies to identify overall patterns.

Case Studies: In-depth studies of individuals.
- Advantage: Rich, detailed data.
- Limitation: Can’t generalize results to larger populations.
- Example: Inside a genius’ mind.
Naturalistic Observations: Observing behavior in real-world settings.
- Advantage: High ecological validity.
- Limitation: Does not explain underlying causes.
- Example: Social behavior in parks.
Surveys and Interviews: Self-reports from representative, random samples.

Correlation: Measures how two factors are related and how they change together.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index that ranges from -1 to 1.
- Positive: Variables increase together.
- Negative: One variable increases as the other decreases.
- Note: Correlation does not equal causation — correlations reveal relationships, not cause-and-effect.
Key equation (Pearson correlation coefficient):
$r = \frac{\text{cov}(X,Y)}{\sigma<em>X \sigma</em>Y}$

Experiments: Isolate cause and effect by
- Manipulating an independent variable (IV)
- Measuring a dependent variable (DV)
- Controlling confounding variables (other factors that could affect results)
Groups:
- Experimental Group: Receives the treatment.
- Control Group: Does not receive the treatment.
Random Assignment: Ensures equal groups and helps control for preexisting differences.
Key Considerations:
- Double-blind: Both participants and researchers are unaware of treatment conditions.
- Placebo: Behavior influenced by expectations alone, based on the belief about treatment.

Psychological research principles help us understand behaviors in everyday life, including:
- Decision making
- Stress management
- Social interactions

Protect participants (human and animal):
- Informed consent, ongoing consent, and right to withdraw.
- Confidentiality and data protection.
Integrity: Avoid bias, fabrication, falsification, or misrepresentation of data.
Follow guidelines from professional organizations (e.g., APA) and international standards.
Practical implications include ensuring humane treatment of animals, minimizing harm, and fostering public trust in research.

The scientific method links to critical thinking and empirical testing from the outset.
Historical debates (structuralism vs functionalism, behaviorism vs Freudian psychology, humanistic perspectives) illustrate how theories evolve with new evidence.
The biopsychosocial model (biopsychology approach) integrates biological, psychological, and social factors for a holistic understanding of behavior.

Wilhelm Wundt: Founded the first psychology laboratory; studied atoms of the mind.
Structuralism (Titchener): Introspection as a method.
Functionalism (James): Adaptive thinking; why mental processes evolved.
Mary Whiton Calkins: First female APA president.
Margaret Floy Washburn: First female psychology PhD (1920s).
John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner: Founders of Behaviorism.
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic theory; unconscious mind.
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow: Humanistic psychology; emphasis on growth potential.
Charles Darwin: Influence on Evolutionary Psychology (natural selection shaping behavior).
Today: Cognitive revolution, biopsychology, and integrative approaches.