Summary of 'Introducing Indian Society'

Introducing Indian Society

Unit 1 Overview

  • India, also known as Bharat, is a unique panorama without parallel.
  • It's an ancient, plural society characterized by unity and diversity.
  • The diversity is visible and captivating.
  • Synthesis of cultures, languages, religions, castes, and communities maintains unity.
  • Economic and social inequalities exist alongside unity and integrity.
  • Unified India has been a goal for kings and thinkers.
  • Objective factors in various social life fields contribute to unity.
  • India exemplifies unity in diversity, an integral part of its identity.

Names of India

  • Early people called it "Bharat Varsha," derived from King Bharat.
  • Also known as 'Jambu Dwipa,' part of a legendary island continent.
  • Currently named India and Hindustan.
    • Persians, Greeks, and Muslim invaders gave these names.
    • 'India' derived from the river 'Sindhu' (Indus).
    • Aryan settlers called it 'Sindhu,' meaning a vast sheet of water.
    • Persian Emperor Darius conquered the area around 'Sindhu' in 518 B.C.
    • Persians pronounced 'S' as 'H,' so Sindhu became Hindu, and the people Hindus.
    • Muslim invaders called the country Hindustan.
    • Greek invaders referred to the river Sindhu as Indus.
    • British rulers retained the name India.

Geography of India

  • India/Bharat Varsha has a distinct geographical identity.
  • It's a vast peninsular subcontinent.
    • Total land area: 32,80,483 sq. km32,80,483 \text{ sq. km}, 2.4%2.4\% of world's total.
    • Extends 3200 km3200 \text{ km} south to north and 3000 km3000 \text{ km} east to west.
    • Seventh-largest country in the world.
  • Surrounded by:
    • Himalayas in the north
    • Indian Ocean in the south
    • Bay of Bengal in the east
    • Arabian Sea in the west
  • Perennial rivers support human civilization:
    • Ganga, Godavari, Jamuna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, Narmada, Brahmputra, Krishna.
  • Four main geographical divisions:
    • Mountainous region in the north
    • Plain region in the Gangetic valley
    • Deccan plateau
    • Eastern and Western Ghat regions
  • Himalayas and Thar desert provide strategic defense.

History of Indian Society

  • Long historical depth, beginning in an unknown past.
  • Historians uncertain about the exact origin.
  • First humans believed to have arrived around 5,00,000 B.C.
  • Indus Valley Civilization (Mahenjodaro, Harappa) provides early pictures of India's past.
  • Coexistence of unity and diversity maintained throughout history.
  • India remained one country for over 2000 years.

Culture of India

  • One of the oldest, richest, unique, and vibrant cultures.
  • Living example of different cultures' synthesis.
  • Unbroken continuity despite evolution phases.
  • Consists of: literature, languages, religion, customs, traditions, dance, music, fairs, festivals.
  • Unity inherent in its cultural heritage.
  • Village-centered, with Vedic tradition shaping it.
  • Deeply rooted in ethics.
  • Rich and glorious heritage, a milestone of Indian culture.
  • Embodiment of nourished values.
  • Grown and refined over the years by saints, thinkers, and religious leaders.
  • Blending rigidity and flexibility.

Religion in India

  • India is a secular state.
  • Major world religions practiced freely:
    • Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Animism.
    • Each religion has multiple sects.
  • Hinduism is the majority religion, Islam the second largest.
  • Religious diversity led to the 1947 partition.
  • Despite secular policy, occasional communal riots occur.
  • Unity is inherent in its religions; Hinduism provides a basis for unity.
  • Prof. Srinivas remarked that the concept of unity of India is essentially a religious one.

Composition of Indian Society

  • India, a vast peninsular subcontinent, is the seventh largest and second most populous country.
  • Ancient origins, with history commencing in the unchronicled past.
    • Early man traced to 5,00,000 B.C.
  • Unique synthesis of diverse socio-cultural, racial, and religious elements.
  • Responsible for its continuity since the unchronicled past.
  • Grand synthesis of races, cultures, languages, and religions maintains unity despite diversities and foreign invasions.
  • Ancient, plural, complex society and culture, a unique panorama.
  • Requires thorough analysis due to its complexity.
Demographic Composition
  • Second most populous country, with 16% of world population.
  • As per 2011 census, population exceeds 121 crores.
    • Male population: > 62 crores (62,37,24,24862,37,24,248)
    • Female population: > 58 crores (58,64,69,17458,64,69,174)
  • Religious composition:
    • Hindus: 79.80 crores
    • Muslims: 14.23 crores
    • Christians: 2.30 crores
  • Sex ratio: 943 females per 1000 males.
  • Age composition:
    • 37% within 14 years
    • 55% within 15-60 years
    • 8% within 60+ years
  • Residence:
    • 68.84% in rural areas
    • 31.16% in urban areas
  • Literacy rate (2011 census):
    • Total: 74%
    • Male: 82.10%
    • Female: 65.50%
  • Population distribution:
    • Rural: 833,087,662
    • Urban: 377,105,760
  • Tribal population: > 8% of the total.
  • Linguistic composition:
    • Hindi: ~40%
    • Telugu: 8%
    • Marathi: 6.7%
    • Bengali: 6%
  • Uttar Pradesh has the highest population among states.
Geographical Composition
  • Total geographical area: 32,80,483 sq. km32,80,483 \text{ sq. km}
  • Extends 3200 km3200 \text{ km} south to north and 3000 km3000 \text{ km} east to west.
  • Called Jambudwipa in traditional Hindu literature.
    • According to Vishnu Puran, it lies north of the ocean and south of snowy mountains.
  • Several geographical regions:
    • High Himalayas
    • Extensive low-lying plains (Ganga Jamuna)
    • High rainfall area (Cherapunji)
    • Dry lands of Rajasthan
    • Cool valleys of Kashmir
    • Vindhyas connecting north and south
    • Aravali range (oldest in western India)
  • Main geographical parts: Gangetic plains, central belt of hills and desert, the peninsula.
  • Fertile land contributes to agricultural prosperity.
  • Rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi) irrigate fields.
  • Ancient India included Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
  • Geographical and climatic diversity provides a unique identity.
Racial Composition

  • Racially diverse country with multiple races.

  • Majority are descendants of immigrants from across the Himalayas.

  • Immigrant races resulted in regional concentrations and distinctiveness.

  • Race definition:

    • Collectivity with distinctive physical features.
    • A. W. Green: "A race is a large biological human grouping with a number of distinctive, inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range".

  • Despite isolation by Himalayas and seas, India received varied races.

    • C.B. Memoria: "Indian Population contains many primitive strains of mankind not found elsewhere to the same extent."

  • Scholars' classifications:

    • Sir Herbert Risley
    • J.H. Hotton
    • A.C. Haddon
    • D.N. Majumdar
    • B.S. Guha

  • Risley's and B.S. Guha's are the most accepted.

Risley's Classification

  • First scientific racial classification, widely accepted.

  • Classified into seven racial types:

    1. Turko-Iranian
    2. Indo-Aryan
    3. Scytho-Dravidian
    4. Aryo-Dravidian
    5. Mongolo-Dravidian
    6. Mongoloid
    7. Dravidian

  • Reduced to three basic races: Dravidian, Mongoloid, Indo-Aryan.

  • Description of racial types:

    1. Turko-Iranian:
    • Found in Afghanistan and Beluchistan.
    • Fair complexion, very tall.
    1. Indo-Aryan:
    • Found in East Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir (Rajput, Khatri, Jat castes).
    • Long heads and noses, tall.
    1. Scytho-Dravidian:
    • Mixed Scythian and Dravidian.
    • Found in Saurashtra, Coorg, Madhya Pradesh hills.
    • Upper strata: Scythian; lower strata: Dravidian.
    • Fair complexion, broad-headed.
    1. Aryo-Dravidian:
    • Mixed Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
    • Found in U.P. and Bihar.
    • Aryan element in Brahmins and higher castes; Dravidian element in Harijans and lower castes.
    1. Mongolo-Dravidian:
    • Mixed Mongolian and Dravidian.
    • Brahmins and Kayasthas of Orissa and Bengal.
    1. Mongoloid:
    • Found among tribals of North-East Frontier and Assam.
    1. Dravidian:
    • Found in Southern India and Madhya Pradesh.
    • Dark complexion.

  • D.N. Majumdar: Aryan and Dravidian are more linguistic than racial.

Dr. B. S. Guha's Classification

  • Presented his own racial classification, widely accepted.

  • Classified into six racial types:

    1. The Negrito
    2. The Proto-Australoid
    3. The Mongoloid
    4. The Mediterranian
    5. The Western Brachycephals
    6. The Nordic

  • Description of racial types:

    1. The Negrito:
    • Controversial; some claim existence in Indian population.
    • Relatively pure form in Andaman Island.
    • Traces in South Indian tribals (Kadar, Nagas) and Rajamahal hills.
    • Opponents claim insufficient evidence.
    • Little trace exists today.
    1. The Proto-Australoid:
    • Pre-Dravidian race.
    • Dominates Indian tribals.
    • Chenchus, Khonds, Korwas, Juaangs, Mundas, Parajas, Santals.
    1. The Mongoloid:
    • Came from North-Western China, found in North Eastern India.
    • Two sub-types:
    • Palaeo-Mongoloid:
    • Long-headed type (Angami Nagas).
    • Broad-headed type (Himalayan foothills).
    • Tibeto-Mongoloid: Found in Sikkim and Bhutan.
    1. The Mediterranian:
    • Previously all over India, now mainly in the south.
    • Dravidian linguistic family.
    • Three types:
    • Palaeo-Mediterranian: Tamil and Telugu Brahmins.
    • Mediterranian: Builders of the Indus Valley Civilization.
    • Oriental: Similar to Mediterranian.
    1. The Western Brachycephals:
    • Entered from the west.
    • Three types:
    • Alpinoid: Saurashtra, Gujarat, Bengal.
    • Dinaric: Orissa, Bengal, Coorg.
    • Armenoid: Parsees of Mumbai.
    1. The Nordic:
    • Came from the North, found in Northern India (mixed with Mediterranian).
    • Enriched Indian culture with ideas, horses, iron, etc.

  • Dr. B. B. Guha:

    • Negrito, Proto-Australoid, and Mongoloid constitute the tribal population.
    • Mediterranian, Western Brachycephals, and Nordic constitute India's general population.
Haddon's and Hutton's Classifications
  • Haddon classified into five racial types:
    • Pre-Dravidian, Davidian, Indo-Aryan, Indo-Alpine, Mongolian.
  • Hutton prepared a succession list:
    • Negritos, Austroloid, early Mediterranian, advanced Mediterranian, Armenoids, Brachycephalic race, Mongoloids.
  • India is composed of almost all important races of the world.
  • Inter-marriage taboos existed but inter-mixture occurred.
  • No pure race exists today; even within families, characteristics of different races can be found.
  • India is rightly called a museum of races.
Religious Composition
  • Multiple religions is unique feature.
  • Secularism is followed from the very beginning.
  • Almost all major religions of the world are practiced without opposition.
  • Secular state with no state religion.
  • Religious diversity is a major source of disunity and disintegration.
    • Overemphasis on religious affiliation leads to communalism.
    • Resulted in the partition of the country.
  • Partition did not solve communalism or create a homogeneous population.
  • Strong communal feeling still persists among religious groups.
  • Religion has been with man since the origin of human civilization.
  • Difficult to trace its origin or give a universally acceptable definition.
  • Definitions oscillate around the concept of supernatural being, beliefs, practices, rites, and rituals.
    • Originated from man's mind, fear, or in response to felt needs.
    • W.F. Ogburn: Religion "is an attitude towards super human powers."
    • Emile Durkheim: Religion "is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating sacred things…"
    • A. W. Green: Religion "is a system of beliefs and symbolic practices and objects governed by faith rather than by knowledge, which relates man to an unseen super natural realm beyond the known and beyond the controllable."
  • Religion has played an important role in Indian society since earliest times.
  • Assumed numerous forms in relation to different groups.
  • 1931 census: ten religious groups; 1961 census: seven religious groups.
  • Major religions in India:
    • Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Animism, Judaism, Bahaism.
Hinduism
  • Ancient religion; religion of majority in India.
  • 2011 census: 96.63 crore people (79.8%) practice Hinduism.
  • Provides a strong base for unity through common beliefs, festivals, customs, and traditions.
  • Consists of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian religious elements.
  • Believes in multiple conceptions of God and ways to attain God.
  • Doctrines: Karma, Dharma, Rebirth, Purusartha, Moksha, immortality of soul etc.
  • Number of sects: Saiva, Sakta, Ganapatya, Baishnab, Lingayat, Kabirpanthi, Satnami, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj etc.
  • Tolerant, no founder, self-propagated.
  • Place of worship: temple.
  • Holy scriptures: Veda, Upanishads, Gita, Mahabharata, Ramayana.
Islam
  • Second largest religion in India.
  • 2011 census: 17.22 crore people (14.2%) practice Islam.
  • Originated in Saudi Arabia during 6th century.
  • Entered India towards the end of the 12th century (Muslim invasions).
  • Spread through different parts and thrived under political patronage of Muslim rulers.
  • Muslim rulers established long dynasties and encouraged conversions from Hinduism and Buddhism.
  • Muslim population gradually increased; very few families can trace ancestry to Saudi-Arebia, Turkey, Afghanistan.
  • Before division, Muslims constituted nearly 24% of the total population.
  • After partition, number declined, but India has the second largest Muslim population in the world.
  • Majority of Muslim population in India are converts.
  • Professes fatalistic acceptance of Allah's will; considers Prophet Mohammed as the greatest prophet.
  • Does not believe in idol worship.
  • The Holy book of Muslims is Quoran, which ordains five primary duties:
    • Belief in Allah
    • Five-time prayers per day
    • Giving alms
    • A month's fast (Ramjan) in a year
    • Pilgrimage to Mecca and Madina at least once in life time
  • The Masque (Masjid) is the place of worship for Muslims.
  • Two main sects: Shia and Sunni.
  • Muslim women observe the system of 'Purdha'.
  • Rate of literacy is low among muslims in India.
Christianity
  • Founded by Jesus Christ; followers known as Christians.
  • 2011 census: Christians constitute 2.30% of India's total population.
  • Widely scattered, mainly concentrated in the south.
  • Constitute more than 25% of Kerala population.
  • Church is place of worship.
  • Entered India through St. Thomas in 52 A.D. at Muziris.
  • First Christian church established by Portuguese after arrival in 16th century.
  • Francis Xavier arrived in Goa in 1542 and began his missionary work.
  • Britishers spread Christianity through their missionaries.
  • Jesus Christ was the founder; Christians consider him as their savior; born to Virgin Mary.
  • Believe that Jesus was sent to reconcile men and God.
  • Believe in the day of judgement; people will be rewarded or punished.
  • The Bible is main scripture and sacred book.
  • Roman Catholics and Protestant are two main sects.
  • Mainly a missionary religion; missionaries increase number of Christians through religious conversion.
  • Christianity is the religion of the majority in the world today.
Sikhism
  • Concentrated in Punjab and Haryana.
  • 2011 census: 1.72% of Indian population.
  • Origin in the religious revolt called Bhakti movement.
  • Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in the 16th century A.D.
  • Originated in reaction to rigidity in Hinduism.
  • Sikhs were originaly a part of Vaishnava sect of Hinduism.
  • Developed by a line of Sikh Gurus who succeeded Nanak.
  • Believe in one God, prohibit idolatry; do not recognise ceremonial impurity at birth and death.
  • Identified with five 'K's:
    1. Kesh (Uncut long hair and beard)
    2. Kanga (Wooden comb)
    3. Kacch (Shorts)
    4. Kara (iron Bangle)
    5. Kripan (short sword)
  • Monistic religion.
  • Sikh Gurus held in reverence.
  • Gurudwara: place of worship.
  • Guru "Grantha Sahib" is sacred scripture.
  • Ideologically nearer to Hindus.
  • God is formless and timeless.
  • Do not believe in caste distinctions.
Buddhism
  • 2011 census: 0.70% of total population of India.
  • Lord Gautama Buddha was the founder.
  • Originated in India during 6th century B.C.
  • Enjoyed royal patronage, spread inside and outside India.
  • Emperor Ashoka (3rd century B.C.) played an important role in the spread of Budhism.
  • Practically lost its influence by 10th century A.D.
  • Ahimsa, Jive daya was its main creed.
  • Believes that desire is the cause of all sorrow.
  • Hinayana and Mahayana are two sects.
  • Majority of Buddhists in India are recent converts from the scheduled caste.
  • Majority of Buddhists are found in Maharashtra, Sikkim, and adjoining Hills.
  • Approximately 85% of India's Buddhists are found in Maharashtra and constitute 6% of state's population.
Jainism
  • 2011 census: 0.37% of India's population.
  • Ancient religion.
  • Tirthankar was the head; Adinath or Rusabhanath was considered first Tirthankar; Lord Mahavir was 24th Tirthankar.
  • Very close to Hinduism.
  • Jains worship in Hindu temples and employ Brahmin priests in performance of domestic rites.
  • Educated and lives mainly in Urban areas.
  • Two sects: Digambaras and Swetambaras.
  • Found in cities of Punjab, U.P., Gujurat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
  • Caste distinctions are also found among the Jains.
Parsism/Zoroastrianism
  • Followers of Zoroster who came to India in the 7th century A.D. from Persia to escape forcible religious conversion to Islam.
  • Less than one lakh in India, majority live in Mumbai city.
  • Mainly urban, educated, economically sound.
  • Worship fire.
  • Expose their dead on the "Towers of silence" to be eaten up by valtures, so earth, fire, water etc. will not be polluted.
  • Well accepted in India.
Animism
  • Primitive tribal religion.
  • More than two crore people believe in Animism in India.
  • Man is believed to be surrounded by impersonal ghostly powers who reside in rocks, stones, rivers, trees etc.
  • Tribal people believe they could be free from diseases and other problems by worshiping and propitiating these ghostly powers.
Linguistic Composition
  • Linguistic composition of India is very complex.
  • Indian society composed of different linguistic groups.
  • A large number of languages are spoken.
  • A.R. Desai: "India present a spectacle of museum of tongues".
  • Called a 'veritable tower of Babel'.
  • Multi-lingual civilization with constant interaction among local, regional and all India languages.
  • After independence, state Reorganisation commission carved out states based on linguistic uniformity.
  • Language refers to some symbols, whose meaning must be learned by all those who use that language.
  • Language is a living force, a changing socio-cultural phenomenon and a great force of socialization.
  • A medium by which one expresses himself.
  • Significant social intercourse is hardly possible without language.
  • Content of every culture is expressible in its language.
  • Gazetter of India, vol-1 says "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which members of a social group Co-operate and interact."
  • A language has both a written and oral aspects.
  • 1951 census shows a total of 845 languages and dialects are spoken in India.
  • George Grierson: 179 languages and 544 dialects in India, majority of which are spoken only in North India.
  • 1971 census: 1652 languages and dialects in India.
  • More than 2000 languages and dialects are used in the country.
  • Very few are spoken by crores of people where as many of them are spoken by very few.
  • Constitution of India, in its Eighth schedule recognises 22 languages.
  • Language map of India can be well understood from present organisation of states.
  • Official language Act of 1963 declared Hindi as the official language of India.
  • Serious riots broke out in non-Hindi speaking states, resulting in English being retained as an associate language.
  • A three language formula was introduced to solve this problem.
  • The multiplicity of Indian Languages may be grouped into four different speech or linguistic families:
    1. The Indo-Aryan linguistic family.
    2. The Dravidian lingustic family.
    3. The Austric linguistic family.
    4. The Sino-Tibetan lingustic family.
  • In undivided India, at about 73 percent of people spoke in the Indo-Aryan languages, 20 percent spoke in the Dravidian languages, 1.3 percent spoke in the Austric languages but oney. 85 percent spoke in the Sino-Tibetan languages.
Linguistic Families
  • Continuous interaction among these linguistic families.
    1. Indo-Aryan:
    • Assamese, Bengali, Gujarathi, Hindi, Kashmir, Marathi, odia, punjabi, sanskrit and urdu languages.
    • Hindi is the most important; recognised as the national language.
    • 1963 it was declared official language.
    • Along with allied languages like Hindusthani, Urdu, Punjabi claimed to be the mother tongue of more than 50% of India's total population.
    • Developed from a local dialect spoken in Eastern U.P.; borrowed from sanskrit; Devanagari is its script.
    • Hindi and urdu together is knwon as Hindustani till 1947.
    • Urdu developed from different dialects spoken near Delhi; borrowed many words from persian and adopted persian scripts.
    • Punjabi is the language of the sikh community and uses Gurumukhi as its script.
    1. Dravidian:
    • Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu.
    • Kannada spoken by people of karnataka who consitute more than 5% of our population.
    • Malayalam is the language spoken by the people of kerala who form at about 5% of our population.
    • Tamil is the mother tongue of the people of Tamilnadu who consitute at about 9% of our population.
    • Telugu is the language of the people of Andhra Pradesh who constitute more than 10% of our population.
    • Second largest linguistic group in India next to Hindi.
    1. Austric:
    • Includes languages of tribal population.
    • Mojority of languages and dialects spoken by the tribals of central India.
    1. Sino-Tibetan:
    • Includes tribal languages.
    • Most of the languages and dialects spoken by the tribals of central India.
  • Majority of Indo-Aryan and four Dravidian languages are included in the 8th schedule of our constitution along with some other language as the National or modem Indian languages.
  • India is reorganised into different states along linguistic lines.
  • Urban centres are multi-lingual in composition.
  • Same language is differently spoken in the same linguistic state; dialects of a language are also many.
  • Multi-lingual nature continue to affect each and every aspect of our social life, poses a serious threat to our national unity and integrity.
Tribal Composition
  • Tribal groups, villages and towns are the three important contrituent of Indian society.
  • Tribals constitute at about 9% of the total population of India; heterogeneous in nature.
  • Approximately 414 tribes in India as per the scheduled tribes list modification order 1956.
  • Tribe is a kinship group that constitute a society.
    • According to piddington. A tribe is group of people speaking a common dialect inhabiting a common territory and displaying a certain homogeneity in their culture."
  • Tribes have a strong sense of distinctiveness and separate themselves form non-tribals.
  • Language is one of the strong traits by which they identify themselves.
  • Numbers tribal population of India are classified into different classes or groups on different bases such as geographical location, language, race and socio-economic development.
Classification of Tribes by Geographical Location
  • Generally, Indian tribes is divided into three main zones:
    1. The North-Eastern Zone:
    • Includes tribal population of Eastern Kashmir, Eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Nothern Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bengal, Nagaland and Bihar.
    • Outposts simla and Leh in the west, Lisahai Hills and the Mishmi tracts in the East.
    • The Aka, the chulikata, the mishmi and the Naga are some of the tribes of this zone.
    1. The Middle or Central Zone:
    • Includes tribal population in Southern Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, M.P., Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashrta.
    • Majority of Indian tribal population lives in this zone.
    • The Baiga, The Bhill, The Gond, The Khond, The Muria and The Savara are only a few among the large varieties of tribes of this zone.
    1. The Southern or the southern-Eastern Zone:
    • Includes the four southern states i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
    • The Chenchu The Kadar, The Kanikar, The Kharia, The Korage, Kols, Munda, Santals, Sawora and The Toda are some of the tribes of this region.
    • Not of common ethnic origin; represent different levels of economic growth.
    1. Isolated Zone:
    • The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal area come under this zone.
    • The Andamanese, The Nicobarese and the Jarwa are important tribes of this zone.
Linguistic Classification
  • Due to balingualism, Multiplicity of dialects and loss of original language scholars Madan and Mazumdar do not consider this basis as scientific.
  • Closely corresponding to the three territorial zones, there are three tribal linguistic groups; the languages of the tribes of the above three main zones belong to three linguistic family such as sino-tibetan or Tibeto-Burman, Austric or Austro-Asialic and the Dravidian.
    1. Sino-Tibetan or Tibeto-Burman:
    • Majority of tribal population of the north-north-eastern region speak in one form or the other of Sino-Tibetan or Tibeto-Burman language, such as Kanauri, Khampti, Lahauli, Swangli etc.
    • The Khasi tribe of this region speak the Mon-khin language which belongs to Austric linguistic family.
    1. Austric or Austro-Asiatia:
    • Primarily, languages of Austric family such as Mundari, Gondi, Kharia, Savora etc dominant in central zone.
    • The Gonds and khonds speak in some language of Dravidian linguistic family.
    1. Dravidian:
    • Tribes of Southern zone speak the Dravidian languages in one form or other, such as korawa, yerukala, Kota, Toda etc.
    • Some of the tribes also speak in Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu.
Racial Classification
  • Race refers to a collectivity of people with a set of distinctive physical features.
  • A race is a large biological human grouping with a number of distinctive inherited characteristics.
  • It is not possible to classify tribes according to their racial origin because tribes is of mixed character.
    • However, Dr. B.S. Guha opines "The southern tribes may have a Negrito origin, the central Indian tribes is the proto-Australoid and North-North Eastern tribes are the mongoloid."
  • Accordingly Indian tribes are broadly classified in to the above three racial groups.
  • There are some tribal communites, whose ancestry has been traced among Palae-Mediterranian race.
Cultural Development and Contact with Plains
  • Dr. Elvin has classified Indian tribes on the basis of the levels of cultural development and contact with the plains into the following four classes:
    1. Tribe one class - cultivate with the help of axe,primitive,communal life and isolated
    2. Tribe two class - maintain outside life and less occupied with axe cultivation and also more individualistic.
    3. Tribe three class - more exposed to external influence; have on the way of losing tribal culture, religion and social organization.
    4. Tribe four class - tribe have succeeded in the battle of culture contact e.g. bhils and the nagas. These tribes are the representative of the old aristocracy.
Economic Development

  • Different scholars have given various classification of tribals on the basis of their level of economic development.

    • Adam smith classified five stages of economic development- hunters, shepherds, agriculturists, handicrafts men and industrial labour.
    • Hildebrand classified economic system of tribes into Barter, Money and the credit.

  • The economic system of any Indian tribe cannot be exclusively placed in any particular typology in its strict sense, because a tribe uses all kinds of occupation to eke out its subsistence.

  • Madan and Mazumdar have given a six fold classification:

    1. Food Gathering: depend on food collecting, hunts:
    • The Birhor, The Chenchu, Kadar.
    1. Agriculture - tribals accept agriculture:
    • khasis, tharus, santals, mundas, oraons, Bhils, minas, koyas
    1. Shifting Axe Cultivation - also known as Jhumi, Kurwa, Penda, Bewar etc.
    2. Handicraft - subsists on crafts, basket making, spinning, weaving, metal work, rope making, basketry, pottery and tool making.
    3. Pastoralism - subsists on pastoral economy:
    • pastoral tirbes are Gujjars, Gaddis, Bakarwals and Todas.
    1. Industrial labour:
    • Tribes come into contacts with industrial life e.g.: Gond, Kond and Santhals migrated to Assam to take up jobs in tea plantation
Integration with Indian People and their Culture:
  • Prof. H.T. Majumdar gives a three fold classification on the basis of their level of integration with the rest of population of India.
    1. Real Primitives-Primitive tibes outside the Hindu influence.
    2. Primitive tribes which have adopted Hindu customs, beliefs and practices.
    3. Primitive Hinduized tribes who maintain social distance from clean caste.
Tribal Welfare Committee's Classification
  • Tribal welfare committee has given a four fold classification of Indian tribes.
    1. Tribal communities:confined to their forest habitat and continue to lead their primitive way of life and costoms.
    2. Semi-Tribal Communities:come out of their original forest habitat and settle in rural areas and have taken up ugricultural and other allied occupations.
    3. Acculturated Tribal communities:migrated from their old forest habitat to urban and semi-urban centres and have taken new occupations in modern industrial centers and have adopted cultural traits of moden society.
    4. Totally assimilated tribal communities: got totally assimilated into the modern society.

Unity and Diversity

  • India i.e. Bharat is a Panorama of it's own type without a parallel in the world.
  • As an ancient and plural society, it is characterised by its unity and diversity.
  • Diversity of India is tremendous and unique.
  • unique synthesis of cultures, languages, religions, castes and communities upholds unity.
  • Concept of one unified India has always been the aim of many kings and great thinkers of the land.
  • Unity of Indian society is the product of some objective factors which are present in the varied fields of Indian social life.
  • India is a fine example of unity in diversity; unity amidst diversity and diversity amidist unity, and has become part of India's self identity.
  • Unity can be found in all historical, social, religious and cultural facets.
  • Grand synthesis of cultures languages and religions of different people has upheld its unity in all periods of history.
  • India fought against the British Raj as one unified country.
    The immigration from different parts of the world make its culture is unique, lively and tolerant. This has contributed to the richness and varied nature of our socio-cultural life.
Factors of Unity
  • Unity means a sense of 'One-ness', integration, or togetherness; which binds members of a diverse society.
  • Idea of unity of Indian society is the product of certain objective factors.
Historical Unity
  • Society has a long history, which has given product to it's unity,
  • Indus valley is the most ancient and the first civlization of world
  • there were great kings worked for unity such as Bharat, Chandragupta, Samudragupta and Ashoka.
    -During British rule Indians became united under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi
  • unique customs, tradition and cultural heritage create unity among Indians.
Geographical Unity
  • Covers 32,80,483 sq. km
  • Natural boundaries

- Bharatvarsha is a historical significance that symbolises unity