First COntact

Origin of Human Presence
- Thousands of years ago, North America was uninhabited by humans during the last Ice Age, which lasted from approximately $20,000$ to $11,000$ years ago.
- During this period, a thick sheet of ice covered most of North America, making it inhospitable.
- Adventurous humans began to migrate into this new world at some point during the Ice Age.
- It is widely accepted that Indigenous people crossed the Bering Strait Land Bridge, which connected Alaska and Eurasia from the end of the last Ice Age up until about $10,000$ years ago.

15th Century Exploration
- In the $15$ th century, European explorers made contact with Indigenous populations, marking the discovery of the “New World.”
- North America soon became a focus for colonial interests, particularly from French and British explorers.
- Europeans established trading posts for exchanging goods such as furs and meat.
- Fishing and whaling expeditions were conducted, with returns to Europe laden with fish and oil.
- Before the $1800$ s, European settlements in North America remained relatively small with limited expansion.

Symbolism and Agreement
- As the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) and the Dutch interacted, they created a treaty symbolized by the wampum belt.
- The wampum belt depicted two different vessels, a ship representing Europeans and a canoe representing Indigenous peoples, traveling side by side down "the river of life."
- Key Principles of the Treaty:
1. Friendship: The Haudenosaunee and the Europeans would live in friendship.
2. Peace: There would be peace between the two peoples.
3. Forever: Their agreement was intended to last indefinitely.

Historical Context
- The fur trade lasted for $300$ years, involving a network of Indigenous traders and Hudson’s Bay Company merchants.
- The trade occurred on terms that were relatively equitable, providing benefits for both Indigenous peoples and European traders.
- Agreements ensured that Indigenous peoples maintained the right to use and protect their lands, articulated in treaties with phrases like "as long as the sun shines, the river flows, and the grass grows."

Historical Significance
- Issued by King George III of Britain in $1763$ , the Royal Proclamation aimed to establish a positive relationship between First Nations and settlers.
- It sought to address Indigenous concerns, particularly regarding land rights and the prevention of settlement on Indigenous lands.

Narrative Recap
- The British colonialist experienced excitement in the early $17$ th century upon arriving in Canada.
- The settler group viewed the dense forests and the St. Lawrence River as fresh opportunities for establishing new lives and expanding the British Empire.
- The settlers faced challenges such as harsh winters and conflicts with Indigenous peoples while witnessing the transformation of their surroundings from wilderness to agriculture.
- Colonization represented the resilience and spirit of the British settlers carving out a new life.

Narrative Recap
- Indigenous peoples experienced mixed feelings of curiosity and trepidation as British ships approached their homeland.
- Their harmonious existence with nature was now threatened by the arrival of strangers.
- Elders discussed the newcomers' potential as either allies or threats.
- Interactions with settlers were marked by both cooperation and conflict, with Indigenous people sharing their knowledge while also watching their ways of life erode significantly.

Transition Over Time
- By the end of the $19$ th century, the demand for furs in the fur trade diminished, leading to increased mining and exploitation of natural resources.
- As a consequence, settlers encroached more upon Indigenous lands and ways of life.

Overview
- This treaty granted land to the Iroquois (Six Nations) as compensation for their aid to British forces during the American Revolution (1775-1783).
- The treaty has remained disputed and controversial, reflecting ongoing tensions between the Crown and the Six Nations.

Impact of Settlement
- By the late 1800s, the settlement process in Canada was well-advanced.
- European settlers enacted laws regulating interactions with Indigenous populations, leading to the establishment of reserves.
- Indigenous groups were pressured to abandon migratory patterns, settle on reserves, embrace farming/trading lifestyles, and adopt Christianity.
Historical Consequences
- Population decline among Indigenous peoples began following European contact, primarily due to devastating diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and measles.
- This event represents one of the major genocides in human history, significantly impacting Indigenous demographics.
- The Crown took on a role as guardian of Indigenous lands, ostensibly to protect against illegal sales and encroachment; however, this effectively stripped Indigenous peoples of their legal rights to their lands.

Conditions of Life
- Indigenous peoples were forced onto reserves to accommodate European settlers and the Canadian Pacific Railway construction.
- The government withheld food supplies to compel Indigenous people to relocate, leading to dire conditions characterized by malnutrition, disease, and preventable deaths on reserves.

Assimilation Policies
- The first residential school opened in Brantford, Ontario, in $1931$ , designed to assimilate Indigenous children into a Eurocentric framework.
- Key Terms:
- Assimilate: To conform to the culture of a society.
- Eurocentric: The belief in the superiority of European culture.
- Tactics in residential schools were aimed at eradicating Indigenous cultural identities.

Evolution of Treaties
- Prior to the 1800s, treaties were centered around friendship and respect.
- By $1871$ , the Numbered Treaties were enacted, focusing substantially on land surrender and oppression of Indigenous peoples.

Formation and Impact
- In $1867$ , the British North America Act unified three British colonies into the first four provinces of Canada, establishing Canada as a dominion under the British Crown.
- Sir John A. Macdonald became Canada’s first Prime Minister and continued British practices aimed at eradicating Indigenous cultures.