Published a system of taxonomy based on resemblances.
Systematics
Classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships.
Divergent evolution
Groups from the same common ancestors evolve, accumulating differences over time, becoming distinct species adapted to different environments/ways of life.
Example: Cats and tigers.
Convergent evolution
Independent evolution of similar features/traits in species from different lineages, resulting in adaptation to similar environments/ecological niches.
Example: Birds and bats.
Clade
Group of organisms that includes a single common ancestor and all its descendants, forming a complete branch of the evolutionary "Tree of Life."
Extinct/Extant
Extinct: species that has no living members.
Extant: species is still in existence, but may have no living populations in the wild.
Morphology
Shape or form, which is used by systematists to infer genetic data about evolutionary relationships.
mtDNA
Mitochondrial DNA evolves/changes slower than nuclear DNA.
Taxonomic Domains
There are three taxonomic domains: True
Statement options: Blatant Lie
Phylogeny
The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.
Sister taxa
Share an immediate common ancestor.
Taxon
A unit of living organisms at any level of the hierarchy (e.g. phyla, class, etc.).
Characteristics of Birds and Mammals
In a comparison of birds and mammals:
a. Shared ancestral character
b. Shared derived character
c. Just weird
d. Useful for distinguishing birds from mammals
e. Example of analogy rather than homology.
Binomial Naming
Consists of genus and species names; must be written as Genus species (italics).
Example of Convergent Evolution
Dolphins and Sharks: Both have evolved similar features independently.
Homologous vs. Analogous Structures
Homologous structures: Similar structures in different species with a common ancestor, differing in function (e.g. forelimbs of whales, bats, and humans).
Analogous structures: Similar in function but with different origins/developmental pathways, evolved independently due to environmental pressures (e.g. wings of birds and butterflies).
Monophyletic, Paraphyletic, Polyphyletic Groups
Monophyletic: Common ancestor and all its descendants (e.g. mammals).
Paraphyletic: Common ancestor but only some of its descendants (e.g. "reptiles" without birds).
Polyphyletic: Includes distantly related organisms (e.g. flying vertebrates, including bats and birds).
Linnaean Classification Levels
From most inclusive to least inclusive: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Oldest Scientific Discipline (according to Professor Smart)
Suggested: Archaea, NOT IKEA.
Mitochondrial DNA Inheritance
We only have mtDNA from our mothers because the father's mitochondria are typically destroyed after fertilization (tail of sperm).
Quiz 2 (1/16/26)
Sophie Carbajal
Sister taxa
Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor and are each other's closest relatives.
Molecular clocks
A method used to estimate the time when two species diverged from a common ancestor, based on the assumption that genes evolve at a constant rate.
Outgroup
Species/group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species being studied.
Phylogeny
The evolutionary history and relationships among a group of organisms.
Horizontal gene transfer
Process by which genetic material is transferred between unrelated species, often seen in bacteria/archaea, in contrast to vertical transfer from parent to offspring.
Paraphyletic Example
Marine mammals as cited by Professor Smart as an example (True or Blatant Lie).
Wings of Bat and Bee
Analagous structures (True or Blatant Lie).
Birds as Feathered Reptiles
Considered a true statement.
Protists as Monophyletic
As stated by Professor Smart, this is a blatant lie; they don't include all descendants.
Molecular Data on Pandas
Some molecular data places the giant panda in the bear family (Ursidae) but the lesser panda in the raccoon family (Procyonidae). The similarities come from:C. inheritance of unshared derived characters.
Shared Derived Characters
Generally within a lineage, the largest number of shared derived characters should be found among organisms of the same taxonomic rank (lower rank means more recent common ancestor and greater number of shared derived characters).
Quiz 3 (1/21/26)
Sophie Carbajal
Phylogeny
Grouping organisms by similarities in characteristics.
Extant
Refers to groups/communities of animals that still exist, as opposed to those that are extinct.
Shared Phylogeny between Species
Inferred based on common ancestry.
Fungal Structures
Zygosporangium: A sporangium that forms from the fusion of two gametangia, common in zygomycete fungi; associated with sexual reproduction.
Asci
Sac-like structures in ascomycete fungi that produce sexual spores.
Mycelium
A mass of hyphae forming the body of a fungus.
Mycorrhizae
A symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots that enhances the absorption of nutrients and water.
Structures and Characteristics of Fungi -
Organisms vary significantly, for instance in multicellular versus single-celled forms, differing lifecycles.
Similarities and Differences
Between Zygosporangia and Asci: Both are associated with sexual reproduction, yet differ structurally.
Quiz 4 (1/23/26)
Sophie Carbajal
Heteromorphic Life Cycle
Includes an alternation of generations.
Endosymbiosis
A symbiotic relationship where one organism lives inside another.
Plastid
A double-membrane organelle found in the cells of plants and algae for photosynthesis and storage functions.
Hydrogenosomes
Membrane-encased organelles in some anaerobic protists, involved in ATP production.
Mitosomes
Small membrane-bound organelles found in certain anaerobic protists, vestigial remnants of mitochondria.
Modes of Nutrition
Autotrophic (produces its own food), heterotrophic (consumes others), saprotrophic (absorbs nutrients from dead organic matter), and mixotrophic (both autotrophic and heterotrophic).
Nucleomorph
A remnant nucleous found within plastids in some algae, resulting from secondary endosymbiosis.
Parabasalids
A group of protists characterized by large modified Golgi apparatus.
Paramylon Granules
Storage carbohydrates found in euglenoids.
Excavata
A supergroup of protists, includes a variety of unicellular eukaryotes.
Molecular Clocks
Methods to date evolutionary events, which are based on constant mutation rates in DNA sequences.
Diatoms
Have silica dioxide tests, True or Blatant Lie.
Archaeplastida
Includes euglenozoans (True or Blatant Lie).
Trypanosoma cruzi
Causes African sleeping sickness (True or Blatant Lie).
Female Sandfly
Is a host for Trypanosoma neosporum (True or Blatant Lie).
Taxonomic Levels
The levels of classification for living organisms from domain to species.
Quiz 5 (1/26/26)
Sophie C.
Pelagic
Relating to or living in the open sea/ocean.
Sessile
Immobile, attached to substrates.
Jeff Duerr
Instructor for BIOL 212.
Mutualism
Symbiotic relationship between two different species where both benefit.
Phytoplanktonic
Relating to marine phytoplankton/microscopic algae.
Cytostome
Mouth structure in some protozoa through which food is ingested.
Thallus
The plant body not differentiated into stem, leaves, or roots (e.g. found in fungi and algae).
Oomycota
Group of fungus-like eukaryotes (e.g. mildew).
Macronuclei
The larger of the two types of nuclei found in ciliates.
Rhizaria
A supergroup of protists, includes amoeboid protists.
Quiz 6 (1/28/26)
Sophie C.
Mutualism
A symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits while the other is not harmed.
Heterotrophic
Organisms that consume food as they cannot produce it.
Protista
Considered a paraphyletic group (True or Blatant Lie).
Mitosomes
Carry out aerobic respiration, similar to mitochondria (True or Blatant Lie).
Domain
Protists belong to the Domain Eukarya (True).
Excavate
A group that includes the euglenozoans.
Trypanosoma cruzi
Causative agent for African sleeping sickness.
Trichomonas vaginalis
Infection in males (True or Blatant Lie).
Intermediate Host
For Leishmania sp. is the female sandfly.
Quiz 7 (1/30/26)
Sophie C.
Syncytial
A multinucleated cell.
Phycoerythrin
A red pigment found in certain algae (e.g. red algae, Rhodophyta) that captures light for photosynthesis.
Charophytes
A group of green algae.
Rhizaria
A supergroup of protists, includes unicellular eukaryotic amoebas.
Conjugation
Process of genetic exchange, it is a sexual reproduction where genetic material is transferred between two individuals through direct contact.
Algin and Agarose
Polysaccharides extracted from certain types of algae (brown/red algae).
White Cliffs of Dover
Composed of calcium carbonate from coccolithophore remains.
Nektonic
Organisms that swim freely, like fish and whales.
Sporophyte vs. Gametophyte
Represents diploid vs. haploid life stages in the alternation of generations cycle of plants.
Differentiation
The process of cell specialization where cells develop into specialized types.
Quiz 8 (2/2/26)
Sophie C.
Mycelium
Mass of hyphae forming the body of fungi.
Septa
Cross-walls dividing fungal hyphae into units.
Yeast
A single-celled fungus that reproduces asexually by budding or fission.
Lichen
Symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism (usually an alga or cyanobacterium).
Heterokaryotic
A condition where a fungal cell contains two or more haploid nuclei from different individuals.
Arbuscules
Structures formed by mycorrhizal fungi within plant roots to facilitate nutrient exchange.
Plasmogamy
Fusion of the cytoplasm of two parent mycelia (without nuclei).
Karyogamy
Fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus during the sexual life cycle of fungi.
Pheromones
Chemical signals released by organisms affecting the behavior or physiology of others of the same species, often used for sexual reproduction.
Mycorrhizae
A symbiotic association between fungi and root systems of plants.
Quiz 9 (2/4/26)
Sophie C.
Endophytes
Organisms (typically fungi/bacteria) that live inside plant tissues without causing disease.
Zygosporangium
A sporangium formed after the fusion of two compatible gametangia, characteristic of zygomycete fungi, containing a zygospore.
Soredia
Powdery reproductive structures in lichens, composed of fungal hyphae around algal cells.
Primary succession
Ecological succession in areas lacking soil, such as bare rock/new volcanic land.
Mold
A type of fungus growing in multicellular filaments called hyphae, commonly associated with decomposition.
Mycosis
Disease caused by a fungal infection in humans or animals.
Asci
Sac-like structures in ascomycete fungi that produce sexual spores.
Mycorrhizae
Symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a plant, facilitating nutrient and water absorption.
Basidium
A microscopic, spore-producing structure in basidiomycete fungi.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
A yeast species commonly used in baking and brewing.