Week 2 Notes: Early Cinema to 1907 (Actualities and Attractions)

Setting the Scene: Modernity and the World of the 1800s

• The world of the 1800s and cinema’s early years blend the familiar with the alien to contemporary audiences.
• Modernity is driven by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and technological advancement across many domains.
• Nietzsche (1888) described modern sensibilities as “immensely more irritable,” reflecting a barrage of stimuli, anonymity, and chaos within urban-modern life (Littau, 20).
• Walter Benjamin links production rhythms to reception rhythms in cinema: “the rhythm of production on a conveyor belt” shapes “the rhythm of reception in the film.” This highlights how industrial processes influence cinematic form and spectatorship.

Global Context: Empires, Maps, and Global Change (circa 1890)

• Europe map circa 1890 shows an era of empires and colonialism; much of the world’s population lived under empire or colonial rule.
• Key political figures presented (e.g., Tsar Nicholas II, Queen Victoria) symbolize imperial reach and global power structures.
• The late 19th century features a mosaic of nation-states and expanding empires that frame the early contexts for global media exchange and audience reach.

The Late 1800s: Industry, Invention, and Social Insecurity

• Innovations and industrial scale:
  • Phonograph (Thomas & Edison) ~1877
  • Telephone ~1876
  • Lever Brothers soap factory demonstration (1890)
• Inequality and social constraints:
  • No women’s suffrage in the U.S. until 1920; U.K. until 1918; France until 1944
  • 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson: “separate but equal” upheld racial segregation laws
  • By 1890, the American frontier is considered closed; Native American genocide campaigns reach a culmination
• The era’s social safety nets: scarce pre-1890 social protections in Europe; limited in the U.S. except for some German welfare measures (Imperial Germany).

Preconditions for Cinema: How Cinema Was Possible

• Visual-perceptual prerequisites:
  • The eye perceives rapid succession of images; a minimum frame rate of about $f_{ ext{min}} = 16 ext{ frames/second}$ is required for smooth motion; $f ext{ around } 24 ext{ frames/second}$ is better for fluidity (persistence of vision and phi phenomenon).
• Image production and projection prerequisites:
  • Large numbers of images produced on surfaces; ongoing advancements in photography.
  • A flexible/plastic base for film stock and a light-sensitive emulsion (Hannibal Goodwin vs. George Eastman → Eastman Kodak, 1889).
  • A mechanical system with gears and slots to advance the film.
• Film stock and format basics (to recall for early equipment and safety):
  • 35 mm film standard with 4 perforations per frame (early Kinetograph/Kinetoscope design) $ext{film format: } 35 ext{ mm}, ext{ perforations: } 4 ext{ per frame}$.

Forerunners and Early Visual Devices

• Early devices that prefigure cinema:
  • Zoetrope
  • Phenakistoscope
  • Magic Lantern shows (illustrative lantern slides)
• Visual experiments that foreshadow moving pictures:
  • Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904): motion studies, stop-motion imagery; famous “The Horse in Motion” (1878) and related sequences; goal to capture rapid movement and breakdown motion into frames.
  • Étienne-Jules Marey (1830–1904): chronophotography; chronophotography gun shoots ~12 frames/second; birds and other moving subjects; contributed to motion analysis and early frame sequences.
• Louis Le Prince: the 1888 French inventor who developed paper strip/roll film concepts; mysterious disappearance in 1888– Washington, D.C.; Edison later patents many similar arrangements; mystery of Reels remains unsolved.

Edison and the Kinetoscope Era: The First Motion Picture Machines

• Edison and W.K.L. Dickson collaboration (late 1880s–1890s): foundational work on motion pictures.
• Kinetograph (camera) and Kinetoscope (viewer): a dual system with film stock routed through a viewer; early films were typically very short (~20 seconds).
• The Black Maria (1893): first dedicated film studio, roof-mounted, using natural sunlight for lighting (not electric illumination).
• First Kinetoscope Parlor (1894): single-viewer experience; Edison initially lacked multi-person projecting capability.

Edison Kinetoscope Films (Ca. 1894–1896)

• Early Edison films showcased a variety of short subjects:
  • “The Kiss” (Edison)
  • “Sandow the Modern Hercules” (Edison)
  • “Cockfight” (Edison)
  • “Serpentine Dance” (Edison)
  • “Seminary Girls” (Edison)

Skladanowsky and Early German Innovation: The Bioscop

• Max and Emil Skladanowsky (German brothers) invented the Bioscop system (two-film strip, 3.5 inches wide).
• They presented a roughly 15-minute program as early as Nov. 1, 1895, which predates Lumière by about two months.
• The Bioscop proved cumbersome and less practical for widespread exhibition, limiting its long-term impact.

The Lumières and the Cinematographe: France’s Portable All-in-One System

• The Lumière brothers (Louis and Auguste) created the Cinematographe in 1894, combining camera, printer, and projector in one relatively portable unit.
• They shot and projected at about 16 frames per second (fps), allowing smoother motion than earlier devices.
• Premiered Dec. 28, 1895 at the Grand Café in Paris with a program of 10 films.
• Key Lumière films:
  • Arrival of a Train at the Station (a landmark moment for audience reaction and cinema’s ability to mimic reality)
  • Workers Leaving the Factory
• The Lumières' innovations helped seed a global spread of cinema via exhibitions and simple projection systems.

Early Spread and Exhibition Contexts

• R.W. Paul (UK) and Birt Acres (UK) were among early practitioners in London:
  • They exploited Edison’s concepts outside the U.S. and adapted cameras/projection systems for local exhibition.
  • Paul improved the camera; Acres improved projection; they helped bring moving pictures to British audiences.
• Other U.S./UK innovations:
  • Latham Loop (Woodville Latham) enabled longer, more stable films by addressing tension-induced film snapping.
  • Thomas Armat’s Vitascope enabled public projection independent of the camera; Edison acquired and claimed credit for it.
  • Herman Casler’s Mutoscope offered peep-show experiences; later coin-operated, hand-cranked viewing in small formats.

Kinds and Types of Early Cinema

• Early cinema categories:
  • Actualities (nonfiction) – Edison and Lumière-era nonfiction films
  • Scenics (travelogues; e.g., “Rough Sea at Dover”)
  • Topicals (news events)
  • Film/photography truth claims (documentary-like assertions of reality)
  • Fiction (brief, staged scenes)
• Exhibitors held significant power over a film’s narrative structure and how audiences experienced the film.

The Continuing Story: Spread, Troubles, and Industry Dynamics

• Film technology developed in the U.S., U.K., and France first, but exhibition and filmmaking quickly spread worldwide due to Lumière innovations.
• A major setback: the 1897 Charity Bazaar fire in Paris killed 125 people; this event led to a pause in Lumière production and broader safety concerns.
• By 1905, Lumière production largely ceased; other firms and national scenes began to dominate.

French Industry: Pathe, Gaumont, and Pioneers

• Pathe Freres vs. Gaumont:
  • Pathe: developed the Pathe camera; its equipment remained influential into the 1910s.
  • Gaumont: smaller but a key rival; notable for supporting Alice Guy-Blaché.
• Alice Guy-Blaché (1873–1968): pioneer among women in film; often called the first female filmmaker.
  • Began working for Gaumont around 1894–1896; possibly directed The Cabbage Fairy (1896) and other early narratives.
  • Married Herbert Blaché in 1907; formed Solax Studio with him; later divorced in 1922.
  • Made The Life of Christ (1906) with a large cast; continued filmmaking in the U.S.; later recognized for pioneering work; featured in the 2018 Be Natural: The Untold Story of Alice Guy-Blaché.

Georges Méliès: Master of Illusion and Special Effects

• Georges Méliès (1861–1938): French magician turned filmmaker; pioneered early special effects and narrative creativity.
• Key contributions:
  • The Magician (1898)
  • A Trip to the Moon (Le Voyage dans la Lune, 1902)
  • Techniques: stop-motion, multiple exposures, fast/slow motion, and other proto-sci-fi effects; early green-screen-like effects.
• Although wildly innovative, Méliès faced bankruptcy by the mid-1910s; his influence persists in cinema history and in later works such as Hugo (2011).

The Brighton School: UK’s Early Narrative and Visual Experiments

• The Brighton School represents a cluster of British filmmakers who developed both narrative and visual effects prowess during 1905–1914:
  • Cecil Hepworth (VFX work, influential in early British cinema; key figure in 1905–14)
  • James Williamson (e.g., The Big Swallow, 1900) – early narrative experiments
  • G.A. Smith (Mary Jane’s Mishap, 1903) – early visual tricks and storytelling.
• Films often shown at fairgrounds to working-class audiences; the UK scene contributed to early cinematic language and tricks.

Back to the U.S.: Domestic Market, Distribution, and Rivalries

• The U.S. domestic market prioritized prints sold and circulated widely; not just rented copies.
• Post-1898 patriotism during the Spanish-American War boosted demand for war-themed and patriotic content; other forms like Passion Play films sustained interest.
• Rivalries and corporate dynamics:
  • American Mutoscope & Biograph (AM&B) as Edison-era rival; legal battles with Edison; AM&B later employed D.W. Griffith (1908) for longer-form narrative work
  • Vitagraph as another Edison competitor; specialized in Spanish-American War subjects and other topical content.

Edwin S. Porter: A Major Narrative Innovator

• Edwin S. Porter (1870–1941): joined Edison in 1899; influenced by Méliès and other pioneers.
• Notable works and innovations:
  • Life of an American Fireman (1902): often cited as one of the first “story films” with a narrative arc
  • The Great Train Robbery (1903): famous for cross-cutting (intercutting) and parallel editing, a foundational narrative technique for action in cinema
  • Dream of a Rarebit Fiend (1906): inspired by Winsor McCay’s comic; early animation influence in cinema

Alice Guy-Blaché: A Groundbreaking Female Filmmaker

• Alice Guy-Blaché (1873–1968): early French filmmaker, often cited as the first female filmmaker.
• Career highlights and context:
  • Early narrative experiments around 1894–1896; possibly The Cabbage Fairy (1896)
  • Led Solax Studio in the U.S. with husband Herbert Blaché; continued producing a wide range of films, including The Life of Christ (1906) with large-scale production
  • Legacy and scholarship: later recognition has elevated her status as a pioneer; 2018 Be Natural documentary documents her career and impact.

Tom Gunning and Maxim Gorky: The Cinema of Attraction and Its Critics

• Tom Gunning (University of Chicago) – The Cinema of Attraction:
  • By around 1904, fiction films began to emerge as dominant products, but early cinema often addressed spectators as a magician would address an audience.
  • An “attraction” is a showpiece that presents something visually spectacular, with a focus on spectacle and exhibition rather than voyeuristic narrative engagement.
• Maxim Gorky (1868–1936): Russian/Soviet writer and critic; early exposure to Lumière films (1896) in his essay Kingdom of Shadows:
  • Describes the experience as mute, grey life; the films seem to cast shadows of the dead and raise questions about social value and meaning in cinema.
  • His reflections invite discussions about cinema’s social function and its capacity for reflection on reality.

Coming Soon: Transitional Cinema and the Road to Narrative Form

• Week 3 preview (Week 3: 9/16–9/18):
  • Screenings: D.W. Griffith Biograph Shorts (1909–1913) including A Corner in Wheat (1909), The Lonely Villa (1911), The Lonedale Operator (1911)
  • Readings: Thompson & Bordwell, Ch. 2–3
  • Short Response Essay and Quiz preparation; discussion section participation

Quick Reference: Short Response Essay Details (Week 2)

• You may use notes, textbooks, Gunning & Gorky essays, and laptop for access; no text-generation tools.
• Time: 65 minutes.
• Focus on required readings and films; exclude Modern Times and Sherlock, Jr. from the essay.
• Develop a strong thesis/argument supported by specific examples from readings and films.
• Grammar and spelling are less critical in this live essay; proofreading time is limited.
• You need a Blue Book with your personal details and TA’s name.
• Rubric is in the syllabus.

Key Dates, Names, and Concepts to Remember

• Frame rates and motion perception:
  • Minimum smooth frame rate: $f_{ ext{min}} = 16 ext{ frames/second}$
  • Ideal/typical rate for smoother motion: $f ext{ around } 24 ext{ frames/second}$
• 1893 Black Maria studio as a turning point in production conditions for single-camera setups.
• 1894 Kinetoscope Parlor marks early public exhibition of moving images to fixed audiences.
• 1895 Grand Café premiere in Paris: Lumière’s first public screening with a set of films; 10-film program.
• 1896 The Life of Christ (1906) by Guy-Blaché demonstrates early narrative-scale production and ambitious casting.
• 1902 The Great Train Robbery (Porter) as a blueprint for cross-cutting narrative technique.
• 1903 The Great Train Robbery and other early narrative experiments launched cinema toward sustained storytelling rather than episodic novelty.
• Key technical terms to recall:
  • Kinetograph
  • Kinetoscope
  • Cinematographe
  • Bioscop
  • Latham Loop
  • Vitascope
  • Mutoscope

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

• The shift from attraction to narrative form mirrors broader shifts in media consumption: audiences move from passive spectacle to organized storytelling.
• Early cinema’s global spread demonstrates how technology travels and local cultures adapt moving-image practices to new social contexts.
• The period’s social issues (suffrage, racial segregation, labor practices) influence, and are reflected in, film’s content, production conditions, and exhibition environments.
• Pioneers like Méliès, Porter, and Guy-Blaché show the interdisciplinary nature of cinema: performance, magic, engineering, and storytelling intersect to create new art forms.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications

• cinema’s rapid growth raises questions about labor conditions in early studios, gender roles in filmmaking, and access to new media technologies.
• The portrayal of social issues (wars, labor, race) in early films invites critical reflection on propaganda, nationalism, and media influence.
• The tension between technical innovation (longer films, projection technology) and safety/regulation (post-fire safety, venue capacity) foreshadows ongoing debates about industry standards and public responsibility.

Notable Formulas, Numbers, and Codes (LaTeX)

• Frame rate references:
  • $f_{ ext{min}} = 16 ext{ frames/second}$
  • $f ext{ (typical)} o 24 ext{ frames/second}$
• Film format and perforation details:
  • 35 mm film with 4 perforations per frame: $ext{format: } 35 ext{ mm}, ext{ perforations/frame} = 4$
• Timeline anchors (dates to remember):
  • 1889: Eastman Kodak celluloid base development (celluloid film stock)
  • 1893: Black Maria studio
  • 1894: First Kinetoscope Parlor
  • 1895: Lumière Grand Café premiere; Cinematographe introduced
  • 1896: The Life of Christ (Guy-Blaché) and early narrative experiments
  • 1902: Life of an American Fireman (Porter) and The Great Train Robbery (Porter)
  • 1906: Dream of a Rarebit Fiend
  • 1907–1914: The Brighton School’s active period

For Next Week: Week 3 Preview

• Screenings: D.W. Griffith Biograph Shorts (1909–1913): A Corner in Wheat (1909); The Lonely Villa (1911); The Lonedale Operator (1911)
• Readings: Thompson & Bordwell Ch. 2–3
• Activities: Short Response Essay; Quiz #1; Discussion participation