Environment: Definition, Concepts, and Natural Resources

Course Overview and Objectives

• Development of Environmental Concern: The primary objective is to foster a genuine concern for the environment among students.

• Conceptual Understanding: Understanding the structural and functional aspects of ecosystems.

• Information Gathering: Gaining fundamental data regarding biodiversity conservation and the state of natural resources.

• Pollution Mitigation: Defining various types of pollution and identifying methods for their control and mitigation.

• Individual Action: Encouraging students to act at a personal level to protect their immediate environment.

• Syllabus Outline:     * Environmental Basic Concepts and Natural Resources.     * Ecosystems: Structure and Function.     * Biodiversity Conservation.     * Environmental Pollutions: Causes, Consequences, and Control.     * Social Issues and the Environment.

• Significance of the Life Support System:     * Components: Water, air, soil, and forests are fundamental life support systems; without them, life is impossible.     * Resource Limits: Natural resources are finite and shrinking; they face depletion without sustainable utilization.     * Human Impact: Nearly every human activity causes environmental effects (solid waste, water/air/soil pollution) that impact health.     * Collective Action: Protection requires the combination of individual effort, public awareness, and government intervention.

Definition and Classification of Environment and Natural Resources

• Environment Definition: Environment includes all the physico-chemical and biological surroundings and their interactions among themselves and human beings.

• Natural Resource (NR) Definition: NR is defined as a form of energy and/or matter which is essential for the functioning of organisms, populations, and ecosystems.

• Role of Natural Resources: They are essential for fulfilling physiological, social, economical, and cultural needs at both individual and community levels.

• Classification of Resources:     * Renewable (Non-Exhaustible): Resources that can replenish themselves over time. Examples include plants, crops, forests, animals, soil, and water.     * Non-Renewable (Exhaustible): Resources that exist in finite amounts and cannot be easily replaced. Examples include fossil fuels, metals, and mineral salts.

Forest Resources: Characteristics and Global Distribution

• Description: Forests are characterized as a vast green canopy dominated by multi-strata vegetation, including trees, herbs, shrubs, and grasses.

• Historical vs. Present Status:     * At the beginning of the 20th century, forest cover was $5 \times 10^9\,ha$ ($38.5\,\%$ of total land area).     * Presently, the global tree cover is approximately $3.92 \times 10^9\,ha$ (< 30\,\% of total land area).

• Global Leaders in Tree Cover:     * Russia: $755\,Mha$.     * Average global country tree cover: $16.9\,Mha$.     * Other significant nations: Brazil, Canada, the US, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

• Recent Trends: Total global tree cover loss between $2000$ and $2003$ amounted to $28.3 \times 10^6\,ha$, driven by deforestation, land-use changes, and natural disturbances.

• Forest Types Determined by Altitude, Temperature, and Rainfall:     * Tropical forests.     * Temperate forests.     * Savanna grassland.     * Coniferous forests.     * Tundra forests.

• Focus on Tropical Forests:     * Occupy only $2\,\%$ of the world’s space but contain $50\text{--}80\,\%$ of terrestrial plant species.     * Rich biodiversity includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, monkeys, small mammals, and predators like tigers and jaguars.     * Plays a critical role in recycling water.     * Human interference has impacted approximately $73\,\%$ of global land.

Forestry in the Indian Context

• State of Forest Report (SFR) 2021 Data:     * Total forest and tree cover: $809,537\,km^2$.     * Percentage of geographical area: $24.62\,\%$.     * Dense Forest: $417,000\,km^2$.     * Open Forest: $259,000\,km^2$.     * Mangrove Forest: $4490\,km^2$.

• Regional Leaders (By Area): Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra.

• Regional Leaders (By Percentage of Geographical Area):     * Mizoram: $84.53\,\%$.     * Arunachal Pradesh: $79.33\,\%$.     * Meghalaya: $76.00\,\%$.     * Manipur: $74.34\,\%$.     * Nagaland: $73.90\,\%$.

Importance, Human Impact, and Management of Forests

• The 5 F's of Forest Products: Food, Fodder, Fibre, Fuelwood, and Fertilizer.

• Economic Products: Timber, rubber, gums, industrial wood, medicinal products, commercial wood, pulp for paper/furniture, and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs).

• Environmental Functions: Ecological balance, biodiversity habitats, and climate moderation.

• Social Impact in India:     * > 200,000 villages are located on forest fringes.     * > 20 \times 10^7 people (including $7 \times 10^7$ tribals) depend on forests for livelihoods.     * $3 \times 10^7$ people are directly involved in gathering and trading NTFPs like fruits, seeds, honey, lac, and gum.

• Negative Human Activities:     * Clearing and burning for agriculture (Jhum cultivation) and cattle rearing (overgrazing).     * Timber extraction leading to biodiversity loss and species extinction.     * Soil erosion and loss of topsoil causing carbon cycle disturbances and global warming.     * In hilly regions: landslides, floods, and river silting.     * External damage from acid rain and forest fires.

• Forest Management Strategies:     * Restraining tree cutting and preventing the submergence of forests.     * Designating protected areas.     * Reforestation initiatives.     * Controlling diseases and fires.     * Recycling and replacing forest products.     * Implementing agroforestry and community forestry.

Environmental Movements and Case Studies in India

• Bishnoi Movement (Thar Desert):     * Started around $1700\,AD$ by Sage Sombaji and forwarded by Amrita Devi.     * $363$ people from the Bishnoi community were killed while protecting 'Khejri' trees.     * The regional king apologized and declared the region a protected area.

• Chipko Movement (Uttarakhand):     * Launched in $1973$ from Gopeshwar, Chamoli district.     * The term means 'embrace' as villagers hugged trees to stop illegal felling.     * Leaders: Sunderlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, and Chandi Prasad Bhatt.

• Silent Valley Movement (Kerala):     * Located in Palghat district, Kundali hills; contains India’s last substantial tropical evergreen forest.     * In $1973$, environmentalists objected to a hydel power project.     * In $1985$, it was declared a national reserve forest.

• Appiko Movement (Karnataka):     * Launched in $1983$ by Pandurang Hegde, modeled on the Chipko Movement.     * Objectives: Afforestation, development, conservation, and proper forest utilization.

• Narmada Bachao Andolan:     * Protest against hydro-electricity dams on the Narmada River since $1985$.     * Leaders: Medha Patkar, with support from Arundhati Roy and Baba Amte.

• Tehri Dam Conflict (Uttarakhand):     * Led by Sunderlal Bahuguna in the $1980s$ and $1990s$.     * Concerns regarding local seismic sensitivity and the submergence of Tehri town and forests.

• United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) / Earth Summit:     * Held in Rio de Janeiro, $1992$.     * Resulted in $27$ principles for sustainable development.     * Outcomes: Agenda 21, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Water Resources: Usage and Statistics

• Distribution of Earth's Water:     * Salt water: $97.2\,\%$.     * Frozen (glaciers/ice caps): $2.2\,\%$.     * Available fresh water: Only $0.1\,\%$.

• Global Usage Patterns:     * Agriculture: $70\,\%$ ($88\,\%$ in India; $77\,\%$ in China; $41\,\%$ in USA).     * Industry: $20\,\%$ ($8\,\%$ in India; $18\,\%$ in China; $49\,\%$ in USA).     * Domestic: $10\,\%$ ($4\,\%$ in India; $5\,\%$ in China; $10\,\%$ in USA).

• Daily Domestic Consumption:     * USA: $700\,\text{litres/day}$.     * France: $400\,\text{litres/day}$.     * Urban India: $140\,\text{litres/day}$.

• Specific Indian Statistics:     * Annual precipitation: $4000\,\text{BCM}$ (Monsoon: $3000\,\text{BCM}$).     * Utilizable water resources: $1123\,\text{BCM}$ ($690\,\text{BCM}$ surface water; $433\,\text{BCM}$ groundwater).

Dams: Multi-purpose Hydropower Projects

• General Status: Approximately $45,000$ large dams exist globally. India and China possess $57\,\%$ of these.

• Benefits: Hydro-power, irrigation, drinking water supply, flood control, navigation, tourism, and pisciculture.

• Drawbacks: Deforestation, displacement of people/wildlife, imbalance of riverine ecosystems, waterlogging, salinization, seismic effects, and water-borne diseases.

• Alternative: Small check dams which provide power and irrigation in harmony with nature.

Water Scarcity, Conservation, and Conflicts

• Projected Scarcity: Water demand already exceeds supply in many areas; imbalance is expected to worsen as population rises.

• Conservation Measures:     * Adoption of modern irrigation (e.g., drip irrigation).     * Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharging.     * Reuse/recycling of wastewater.     * Scientific linking of rivers.     * Improved design for toilets and washing machines.

• Water Conflicts:     * Tigris-Euphrates: Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.     * Nile River: Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt.     * Cauvery Dispute: Long-standing issue between Karnataka (upstream) and Tamil Nadu (downstream). Tribunal set up on June 2, $1990$.     * Indus Water Treaty (1960): Jhelum, Chenab, and Indus given to Pakistan; Sutlej, Ravi, and Beas to India.     * Sutlej-Yamuna Link Canal: Dispute between Punjab and Haryana.

Food Resources: Global Supply and the Green Revolution

• Global Food Mix: Plant Products ($80\,\%$), Animal Products ($16\,\%$), Marine Food ($4\,\%$).

• Green Revolution (GR):     * Global Father: Norman Borlaug.     * Father in India: Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.     * Impact: India became self-sufficient via mechanized agriculture, hybrid seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides.     * Yield Trends: Increased from $1.15\,\text{tons/ha}$ (1930s) to $2.4\,\text{tons/ha}$ (1990s).

• Food Scarcity and Malnutrition:     * FAO estimates $840 \times 10^6$ hungry people globally despite sufficient production.     * Undernourishment in India (2011-2023): $212 \times 10^6$ people.

• Modern Agriculture Impacts:     * Loss of indigenous species due to high-yield varieties (HYV).     * Fertilizer Issues: Methamoglobinemia (nitrate) and Eutrophication (algal blooms).     * Pesticide Issues: Biomagnification (accumulation in tissues).     * Soil Issues: Waterlogging and salinity.

Organic Agriculture

• Definition: An ecological production management system that enhances biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, and soil health with minimum farm inputs.

• Practices: Biopesticides, biofertilizers, intercropping, agroforestry, and rainwater harvesting.

• India’s Organic Status:     * Ranks 1st in the number of organic farmers.     * Ranks 9th in terms of area under organic farming.     * Sikkim (2016): Became the world's first entirely organic state.     * North East India and tribal territories have traditionally been organic.     * Major exports: Flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal plants, rice, and pulses.

Mineral Resources and Mining Impacts

• Specific Mineral Uses:     * Aluminium: Packaging, utensils, electronics.     * Copper: Electronics, construction.     * Iron: Heavy machinery, steel.     * Lead: Batteries, gasoline (historical), ammunition.     * Nickel: Batteries.     * Silver: Jewellery, electronics.     * Platinum: Catalytic converters, medical use.

• India’s Mineral Productivity:     * Produces $89$ minerals ($4$ fuel, $11$ metallic, $52$ non-metallic, $22$ minor).     * Ranks 3rd in coal/lignite and barytes; 4th in iron ore; 6th in bauxite and manganese.     * Largest producer of mica blocks.

• Environmental Impacts of Mining:     * Direct impact on forests and soil; land subsidence and landslides.     * Resettlement of people (linked to Naxalite issues in some areas).     * Disposal of mine waste and ecological impact of ore refining.     * Community health hazards.

• Protective Measures:     * Mandatory Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) reports for GOI clearance.     * Oversight by the Indian Bureau of Mines.     * Back-filling and restoration of mined areas to original condition.     * Establishment of green belts and check dams.

Energy Resources and Fossil Fuels

• Global and National Demand:     * World: $10,000\,\text{mtoe}$ (Million Tons of Oil Equivalent).     * India: $900\,\text{mtoe}$ (4th largest consumer globally after China, USA, Russia).

• Indian Energy Mix: Coal ($54\,\%$), Oil ($29\,\%$), Natural Gas ($6\text{--}7\,\%$), Hydro-power ($6\,\%$), Renewables ($6\,\%$).

• Coal Grades:     * Anthracite: Highest grade (> 85\,\% Carbon); most efficient and least polluting.     * Bituminous: Medium grade ($50\text{--}75\,\%$ Carbon); higher sulfur; most abundant in the USA.     * Lignite / Peat: Lowest grade ($40\,\%$ Carbon); most polluting.

• Petroleum:     * Found in "oil windows" at depths of $7,000\text{--}15,000\,\text{feet}$.     * Usage: Transport ($60\,\%$), Lubricants/plastics/fertilizers ($30\,\%$).

• Natural Gas:     * Methane ($90\,\%$) with propane and butane.     * Considered a cleaner fossil fuel; reserves estimated for the next $100\,\text{years}$.     * $45\,\%$ of reserves are in Russia and Iran.

Non-Conventional and Renewable Energy Sources

• Biomass and Biogas: Utilizes animal dung, kitchen scraps, and agricultural residues. MNRE has implemented specific biomass programs since the mid-90s.

• Geothermal Energy: India’s potential is $\approx 10,600\,MW$ (equivalent to $5130 \times 10^6\,\text{tonnes}$ of coal). Potential in NW Himalayas, West Coast, and Tattapani Spring (Odisha).

• Tidal Energy: Potential in Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kutch, and Hooghly.

• Solar Energy:     * India receives $\approx 5000 \times 10^{12}\,kWh$ annually due to its location on the Tropic of Cancer.     * Key Sites: Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Ladakh.     * Bhadla Solar Park (2022): Largest solar park in the world.     * Shakti Sthal (Tumkur, Karnataka): Second-largest solar park in the world.     * Cochin Airport (Kerala): World's first and only $100\,\%$ solar-powered airport.     * Rewa Project (MP): $750\,MW$ project that broke the grid parity barrier.     * The Renewable Energy Corporation of India (RECI) facilitates the National Solar Mission.