Anatomy Notes

Prefixes

Therm- means heat

Endo- means within

An Endotherm is an organism that maintains a constant body temperature (inner heat)

A / An/ Anano- means not, against

Dia- means complete

Ecto- means outer, outside

Hyper- means too much, excessive

Hypo- means too little, below normal

Peri- means around, surrounding

Pro- means before, infront

Retro- means behind

Sub- means below

Trans- means through, across

Terms

Arthro- Joint

Tuberosity- Rounded prominence

Cardio- Heart

Cephalo- Head

Costo- Ribs

Process- Projecting part

Hemo- Blood

Ilio- Pelvis

Myo- Muscle

Fossa- Groove or depression

Osteo- Bone

Suffixes

-algia means pain

-cyte means cell

-ectomy means removal

-emia means blood condition

-itis means inflammation

-oma means tumor, mass

-opsy means to view

Planes and Positions

Positions

The anatomical position is the description of any region or part of the body in a specific stance. In this position, the body is upright, directly facing the observer, feet flat and directed forward, upper limbs are to the side, and the palms are facing forward.

When the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position.

When the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position.

Anterior view: at or near the front of the body

Posterior view: at or near the back of the body

Midline is the imaginary line running down the middle of the body

Lateral means away from the midline

Medial means toward the midline

Superior View: positioned looking towards the head with the feet furthest away, showing the upper half of the body

Inferior View: positioned looking towards the feet with the head furthest away, showing the lower part of the body

Deep: away from the surface of the body

Superficial: close to the surface of the body

Distal: away from the attached end of a limb or the body

Proximal: toward the attached end of a limb or the body

Planes

Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that pass through parts of the body

Sections are cuts along a certain plane

Frontal Plane: divides the body into front and back portions.

Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) portions

Oblique plane: passes through a structure or the entire body at an angle.

Sagittal Plane: Divides a structure or the body vertically into left and right portions.

Movement within the planes is parallel to the planes

Movement

When the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position.

When the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position.

Flexion bends the joint or brings bones closer together

Extension straightens or opens a joint

Hyper-extension: movement beyond straightening

Abduction moves the limb laterally away from the midline of the body

Adduction moves the limb laterally toward the midline of the body

Inversion: The inner side of the foot moves up

Eversion: the outer edge of the foot moves up

Pronation occurs when the radius crosses over the ulna (palm of the hand turns down)

Supination occurs when the radius and ulna are next to each other (palm of the hand turns up)

Plantarflexion: pushing toes downward (pushing the gas pedal)

Dorsiflexion: pulling the toes toward the body (letting off the gas)

Internal Rotation: joint internally rotates, limb turns toward the midline

External Rotation: swing limb away from the midline

Body Cavities

Body Cavity: a space that protects internal organs

Two main Cavities: Anterior & Posterior

Ventral (Anterior) can be separated into even smaller cavities: Thoracic, Abdominal, and Pelvic

    Thoracic Cavity- Lungs, Heart, Diaphragm is the floor of the cavity

    Abdomino-pelvic Cavity- Largest in the body, Digestive Organs. Pelvic- holds reproductive organs and bladder

Dorsal (Posterior) can be separated into Cranial and Vertebral.

    Cranial Cavity- brain

    Spinal (Vertebral) Cavity- spinal cord

Cell Physiology

Basic Cell Functions:

• obtain nutrients

• perform chemical reactions to turn nutrients and oxygen into energy

• Eliminate cell waste

• Synthesize proteins for structure and growth

• Control the exchange of materials from the environment

• Move materials internally

• Sense and respond to changes in the environment

• Reproduction

Specialized Cells- form four primary types of tissue

• Muscle

• Nervous

• Epithelial

• Connective

Muscle Tissue- specialized cells for contracting (3 types)

• smooth

• cardiac

• skeletal

Nervous Tissue- specialized cells for initiating and transmitting electrical impulses. Found in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs. Important for: Communication, Coordination, and Control

Epithelial Tissue- specialized cells for exchanging materials between the cell and its environment

Two General Types of Structures:

• Epithelial Sheets- separate boundaries

• Secretory glands- release substances: Endocrine & Exocrine

Connective Tissue- has relatively few cells dispersed within extracellular material: Connects, Supports, and Anchors Diverse Structures: Loose connecting tissue attaching epithelial tissue to deep structures: Tendons and Bones

Cell Structure

Shared Features: Plasma Membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm

Additional Cell Structures

Cytoskeleton- made of protein filaments; highways of the cell

Nucleus- control center; contains DNA

Ribosomes- make proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum- protein & lipid production and transport

Vesicles- transport materials

Golgi Apparatus- sorts molecules

Mitochondria- makes ATP

Vacuoles- storage

Membranes and Transport

Biological Membranes: Selective barriers - Permeable to some substances and not others.

Cell Membrane Structure:

• Separates cell interior from exterior

• Lipid Bilayer- two layers of phospholipids

• Proteins embedded in lipid bilayer

Membrane → Cytoplasm → Cytosol

Cell-to-Cell Adhesion:

• CAM’s- cell adhesion molecules

• Extracellular matrix- biological glue

• Specialized cell junctions- velcro-like cohesion

Membrane Transport:

• Membrane transport- substances that pass into or out of a cell through the plasma membrane

  • Permeable = substance can cross

  • Impermeable = substance cannot cross

  • Selectively Permeable = only some substances can cross

Two factors influencing whether a substance can cross:

• Size of substance

• Relative Solubility

  • Solubility- the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance to dissolve in a solvent

Diffusion:

• Solute- substance that can be dissolved

• Solvent- breaks apart solute (in the body is water)

• Diffusion- when the solvent becomes part of the solution

• Concentration- the amount of solute dissolved in specific amount of solution

Concentration Gradient:

• Difference between the concentrations of a solute in two areas of a solution

• In cells, a concentration gradient results from unequal distribution between particles outside the cell (extracellular fluid)

• Creates a potential force to move substances through the membrane to achieve equilibrium

Transport:

• Ways to transport is allowed

  • Active Transport- uses energy: Endocytosis, Exocytosis

  • Passive Transport- requires no energy: Simple, Facilitated

Cellular Respiration

Cell Metabolism- the processes that occur in a cell to maintain life: Anabolism, Catabolism

Human Metabolism- Calorie, Cellular Respiration, ATP

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):

• Energy currency of the body

• Cash to pay the price of running functions

• Adenosine plus 3 phophates

Mitochondria

• Energy organelles

• Power Plants of the cell

• Extraction of energy from the nutrients in food

• Generate ~90% of the energy we need for functioning

Cellular Respiration:

• Oxygen is used to make energy from glucose

• Also called aerobic metabolism, aerobic respiration, and oxidative metabolism

• Step 1 is Glycolysis to break down the 6-carbon sugar molecules

• 3 Step Process

  • Glycolysis (Anaerobic)

  • Krebs Cycle (Aerobic)

  • Electron Transport Chain (Aerobic)

1. Glycolysis:

• Glyc=sweet and olysis= breakdown (Sweet breakdown)

• Enzymes in the cytosol break down the glucose into 2 pyruvte molecules and 2 hydrogens and 2 NADH molecules and creates 2 ATP

• Process requires 2 ATP so you only create a net of 2 more

2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

• Acetyl-CoA molecules enter the cycle and produce:

  • 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP

  • NADH and FADH2 move to the next step

3. Electron Transport Chain

• Series of proteins in the mitochondrial membrane transfer electrons from donors to acceptors

• Oxidative phosphorylation

  • Energy released by the electrons is used to generate ATP

*One molecule of glucose can produce 36-38 ATP

Metabolism and Energy Systems

Metabolism

• Chemical reactions that occur in the body to maintain itself

• Also called bioenergetics

• Defined as the study of how energy is transformed through biochemical reactions

Thermodynamics:

• First law of thermodynamics

  • Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only recycled or converted from one form to another

  • In humans, this is the concept of energy balance- all of the energy of a human consumes is either used to perform body functions or stored within the body

Exercise Metabolism

• The bioenergetics as it relates to the unique physiologic changes and demands placed on the body during exercise

Fuel for Metabolism

• Substrates:

  • Proteins (chains of amino acids)

  • Carbohydrates

  • Fats

• Glucose

  • One of the main sources of energy

  • Can be made in the body from other substrates (fats and amino acids)

  • Majority comes from carbohydrates

  • Stored glucose is glycogen

Fuel Needs and Exercise Intensity

• Rest or Low-intensity activity = fats (lipids) primarily fuel the body

• As intensity increases, the body transitions to using mostly glucose for energy

• VT (Ventilatory Threshold) 1: metabolic marker for increased intensity that requires 50% glucose and 50% fat

• VT2: metabolic marker for high intensity and the point at which glucose is providing almost all of the energy

Fat as Fuel

• Source of energy for rest and low-intensity action

• Triglycerides- free fatty acids

• Excess calories are converted to fat

• Utilized in aerobic metabolic pathway to produce ATP

Amino Acids as Fuel

• Protein- made of long chains of amino acids

  • Humans use 20 different amino acids to assemble protein

  • 9 essential amino acids

  • Utilized to build muscle and repair tissue

  • Can also supply energy for ATP if carb and fat sources are low

  • Gluconeogenesis- the process used to break down amino acids to use them for ATP production

Ketone Bodies

• Ketogenesis- the formation of ketone bodies from amino acids

• Ketone bodies- water-soluble molecules produced in the liver as a result of fatty acid oxidation or conversion of amino acids during gluconeogenesis

• Anaerobic metabolization

• Ketosis occurs when the metabolism creates ketone bodies to make up for lack of carbohydrate stores

Energy Systems

• The human body is an organic machine that turns chemical energy into mechanical work

• Phophorylation- addition of phophate to a molecule of ADP to make ATP

• Three metabolic pathways:

  • ATP PC System (phosphagen)

  • Glycolytic system (glycolysis)

  • Oxidative system

ATP-PC (Phosphagen) System

• First step in ATP gerating metabolic pathways

• Also called phosphocreatine system

• Called upon when body transitions to higher intesity actions

• 10-15 second duration

• Anaerobic

• Power forms of exercise

The Glycolytic System

• Also referred to as glycolysis

• Slightly slower anaerobic system

• Turns free blood glucose or stored glycogen into pyruvate and ATP

• Lasts for roughly 30-60 seconds but can be increased with high intesity training

The Oxidative System

• Most compex of the three systems

• Also called oxidative phosphorylation

• Requires oxygen- Aerobic

• Three substrates utilized:

  • Free fatty acids

  • Pyruvate (created during glycolysis)

  • Amino acids

• All three substrates must be converted to AcetylCoA

Exercise Energy Needs

• Defined by 2 factors:

  • Intensity

  • Duration

• Inverse relationship

  • As intensity rises, the duration must go down

Energy Expenditure

Kilocalorie: kcal is the basic unit of energy that is provided by food

Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) is the number of calories that a person expends in 24 hours (varies for many reasons)

RMR: resting metabolic rate is the number of calories a person burns just living their daily lives

• Physiological processes like digestion, respiration, heart function … etc

• General activities like walking from one room to another at gome or typing on a keyboard at work or school… etc

Thermogenesis

• Thermogensis is the metabolic process in which the body burns calories to produce heat

  • Exercise Activity Thermogenesis: Energy used when exercising

  • Non-exercise Thermogensis: the energy used for activites of daily living

  • Thermic Effect of Food: Energy used to digest food

• In combination with RMR these three energy oyutputs combine to equal Total Daily Energy Expenditure

Measuring Human Energy Needs

estimate for most individuals’ daily calorie intake needs at rest:

• The Mifflin-St Jeor equation, created in the 1990s, provides a valid estimate of RMR

  • Men: (10 x weight in kg) + (6.25 x height in cm) - (5 x age in years) +5

  • Women: (10 x weight in kg) + (6.25 x height in cm) - (5 x age in years) - 161

Energy Needs for PA

• To calculate how mnay calories to add to your resting metabolic rate (RMR) for physical activity, you can multiply your RMR by a factor based on the intensity and frequency of your exercise:

  • Lightly active: Exercise 1-3 days per week and multiply you RMR by 1.375

  • Moderately active: Exercise 3-5 days per week and mutliply your RMR by 1.55

  • Very active: Exercise 6-7 days per week and multiplt your RMR by 1.725

• To get your total calorie needs per day, adding your activity calories to your RMR will estimate how you might maintain your current body weight or acieve “energy balance“

Skeletal System

206 bones in the human skeleton

Divided into 2 sections

• Axial- skull, vertebral column, and ribcage

• Appendicular- upper and lower extremities

Axial vs Apendicular Skeleton

• Axial includes cranium, thorax and vertebral column

• Appendicular includes pevlis and lower and upper extremeities

What is a bone?

Living system of tissue with functions including:

• Support: gives shape to the body and allows humans to stand

• Protection: protects vital organs and structures

• Movement: made possible by muscles pulling on bones

• Storage of minerals: essential minerals stored in the bones

  • Blood: Blood cells are formed in the red marrow within certain bones

Shapes or Types of Bones

• Long Bones: femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna

• Short Bones: trapezoid (wrist bone), carpals, tarsals

• Irregular Bones: pelvis, vertebrae, some facial bones

• Flat Bones: scapula, sternum, ribs

• Sesamoid: Patella (bones that protect tendons and ligaments)

Gross Anatomy of Bones

Bone Tissue:

• Compact bone makes up the dense outer layer of bone. Its functional unit is the osteon. Compact bone is very hard and strong

• Spongy bone is found inside bones and is lighter and less dense tha compact bone. This is because spongy bone is porous - this makes our weight lighter for efficient movement.

• Bone marrow is a sot connective tissue that produces blood cells. It is found inside the pores of spongy bone.

• Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers and protects the outer surfaces of bone.

Bone Vascular Tissue and Nerves

• Bones are supplied with blood and nutrients through a complex system of blood vessels

• Nerve channels also run within bone tissue

Bone Development from Embryo to Adult

• Bone development, ossification (osteogenesis), begins by the sixth or seventh week of embryonic life

• Bone forms on a cartilaginous matrix

  • growth plates

• The human skeleton is composed of 270 bones at birth - this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused

• It is believed that peak bone density occurs between the ages of 18-25 years.

Remodeling of Bone

• Ossification (or osteogenesis) is bone remodeling is the process of laying down new bone material by cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with bone tissue formation or remodeling

• Bone tissue is continuously remodeled through the concerted actions of bone cells

  • Bone resorption is caused by osteoclasts

  • Bone formation is caused by osteoblasts

  • An imbalance between bone resorption and formation can result in bone diseases, including osteoporosis

  • Bone cells are triggered to break down or form new bone based on the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood

Anabolic vs. Catabolic

• Anabolism

  • Process by which the body systems take smaller units like nutrients, cells, or amino acids and bonds the together to create bigger structures

  • Example: Osteoblasts are anabolic- the buid bone when stimulated by hormones in the body; healing after a wound is another example

• Catabolism

  • Process takes larger structures like proteins, fats or tissues and breaks them down into smaller units

  • Example: Osteoclasts are catabolic- they break down bone and send minerals into the bloodstream; digestion is another example

Bone Injuries and Disorders

Fractures:

• Fractures can be described by their location, the bone alignment, whether there are associated complications with blood and nerve function, and whether the skin is intact at the fracture site

Injury and Healing of Bone

• Fractures- any loss of continuity of bone. Anytime the bone loses integrity, whether it’s a hairline crack or a shattered bone, it’s considered a fracture.

• The bone healing process has three stages: inflammation, bone production and bone remodeling

  • Inflammation and clotting at the fracture site happen first. This provides the initial structural stability and framework for producing new bone.

  • As healing progresses into bone production, the clotted blood formed by inflammation is replaced with fibrous tissue and cartilage (known as soft callus). The soft callus is replaced with hard bone (known as hard callus)

  • Bone remodeling- the final phase of bone healing- goes on for several months. In remodeling, bone continues to form and becomes compact, returning to its original shape

Bone Bruise

• Brone Bruises- less severe than a bone fracture and happens when a person sustains a traumatic blow extreme/repeated pressure, or a rotational or twisting force

  • The injury can cause bleeding and swelling in the central cavity of the bone where red and yellow bone marrow is stored

Osteoporosis

• Osteoporosis: a bone disease that occurs when the body loses too much bone, has too little bone, or both. As a result, bones become weak and may break from a fall or even from sneezing or minor bumps in advanced stages. means “pourous bone“

• Osteoporosis-related ractures most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or spine

• Risk Factor: age, gender, ethnicity, genetics, body frame size

• Treatment: For both men and women at increased risk of fracture, the most widely prescribed osteoporosis medications are bisphosphonates

  • Bisphosphonates are drugs that slow down or prevent bone loss by inhibiting osteoclasts.

• Prevention is key!!

  • Weight bearing exercise- form follows function

  • Proper diet- ph balance in bloodstream is very important

Osteomalacia

• Defined: softening of the bones, typically through a deficiency of vitamin D or calcium

• People who live in areas where sunlight hours are short or eat a diet low in vitamin D ca develop osteomalacia

• Celiac disease cna lead to malabsorption of vitamin D

• Kidney or liver disease can interfere with body’s ability to make vitamin D

• Medications can interfere with vitamin D absorption

Osteoarthritis

• Defined: a degenerative disease in which the protective cartilage on the ends of bones wears down over time

• Most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips, and spine

• No specific cause. Several factors lead to the development of OA, including excess weight, injury or overuse and genes

Scurvy

• Defined: Scruvy is the name for a vitamin C deficiency

• Vitamin C is important in the formation of collagen, a connective tissue of the body

Cartilage

• Cartilage has no nerves or blood supply

• There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

• Cartilage is surrounded by a dense tissue membrane called a perichondrium

Types of Cartilage

• Hyaline

  • The most prevalent type of cartilage and is flexible yet resilient

  • Covers the end of bone, connects ribs to sternum, is the skeleton of the larynx, supports the external nose

• Elastic

  • More elastic than hyaline

  • Found in the external ear and the epiglottis

• Fibrocartilage

  • Highly compressible but lots of tensile strength

  • Found in thick pad-like structures like the menisci of the knee or the discs of the vertebral column.

Overview of Major Bones

Major Bones in Human Skeleton- Axial

• Core of human body protecting vital organs: 80 bones

• 29 bones in the head - (8 cranial and 14 facial bones) and 7 associated bones (6 auditory ossicles and the Hyoid Bone)

• 25 bones of the thorax - (the sternum and 24 ribs)

• 26 bones in the vertebral column (24 vertebrae, the sacrum and the coccyx)

Cranium

• The cranium supports the structures of the face and protects the brain

• Composed of two parts: cranium and mandible

• Made up of a number of fused flat bones

• Contains foramina (openings), processes (projections) and several cavities or sinuses

Sutures of the Skull

• Coronal Suture: junction between the frontal and parietal bones

• Sagittal Suture- junction between the two parietal bones

• Lambdoid Suture- junction between the parietal and occipital bones

• Fontanelle- soft spot or space between the cranial bones

Cranial Sutures

Degrees of suture ossification

A. Degree 1- suture clearly visible

B. Degree 2- dashed suture line with some tracks of complete fusion

C. Degree 3 only traces of suture remain

D. Degree 4- suture is completely fused

Male and Female DIfferences in Skull

• Subtle differences in male and female skull:

• Women have a more rounded frontal bone; men have less rounded and sloping frontal bone

• Male skull is larger and heavier

• Women’s eye sockets are more rounded; men’s are more sqaure

Spinal Bones

• Adult spine consists of 26 bones

  • 24 presacral vertebrae (7 cervical, 12 thoraic, and 5 lumbar)

  • sacrum (5 fused sacral vertebrae)

  • coccyx (4 frequently fused coccygeal vertebrae).

  • Prior to adolescence, the spine consists of 33 bones because the sacrum’s five bones and the coccyx’s four do not fuse until adolescence

Rib Cage

• A human rib cage consists of 24 ribs, the sternum (including xiphoid process), costal cartilage and 12 thoracic vertebrae

  • Fixed ribs- first seven rib pairs

  • False ribs- eighth-to-twelfth pairs of ribs. The eighth-to-tenth pairs of ribs connect to the sternum indirectly via the costal cartilages of the ribs above them. Their elasticity allows ribcage movement for respiratory activity.

  • Floating ribs: the 2 lowermost rib pairs (eleventh and twelfth); they are attached only to the vertebrae but not to the sternum or cartilage of the sternum

Major Bones in Human Skeleton- Appendicular

• Bones of the Appendicular seleton:

  • 4 bones in the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scaula each side)

  • 6 bones in the arm and forearm (humerus, ulna, and radius)

  • 58 bones in the hands (carpals 16, metacarpals 10, phalanges 28 and sesamoid 4)

  • 2 pelvis bones

  • 8 bones in the legs (femur, wtibia, patella and fibula)

  • 56 bones in the feet (tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges and sesamoid)

Shoulder Girdle

• Anchor sthe appendicular skeleton to the axial skeleton at the top

• Consists of a complex of five joints

Arm/Forearm

• Humerous

• Radius

• Ulna

Hand and Wrist Bones

• Carpas

• Metacarpals

• Phalanges

Pelvis

• Connects the lower appendicular skeletonto the axial skeelton at the sacrum

• In adults, each hipbone consiss of 3 fused bones

  • Ilium

  • Ischium

  • Pubis

Male vs Female Pelvis

• Angle of pubic arch

• Coccyx or tailboen in males is projected more inwards

• Female sacrum is wider and shorter

• Angle of acetabulum is more vertical in females

• Pelvic inlet in women more oval shape and larger

Leg Bones

• Femur (largest bone in body)

• Patella or knee cap

• Tibia

• Fibula

Foot and Ankle Bones

• Tarsals

  • The calcaeus and talus, navicular, cuboid and 3 cuneiforms

• Metatarsals

• Phalanges

Joint & Joint Structures

Types of Joints in Human Body

• joints allow for movement of the human body

• Synovial

• Fibrous

• Cartilaginous

Joint Classification and Movement

• Joint names are typically derived from names of the bones involved

• Joint classification is according to the manner in which the adjacent bones are bound to one another and how freely the bones can move

Fibrous Joints

• Joints that are held tightly together by fibrous connective tissue

• Lttle to no motion

• No joint cavity

• Examples: sutures of skull, tooth in a jaw, articulation between the radius and ulna; tibia and fibula

Syndesmosis

• Slightly movable fibrous joint in which bones are joined together by connective tissue

• Typically found between the long bones of the body

• Also knows as “fixed joints”

• Example: the tibia and fibula; radius and ulna

  • Interosseous membrane

Cartilaginous Joints

• Bones connected by cartilage

• Pad of cartilage lies between ends of bones

• No joint cavity

• Typically, little to no motion

• Examples: Pubic symphysis, costochondral joints of ribs, sternum, epiphyseal plates in growing bones, vertebral discs

Synovial Joints

• Most moveable

• Ends of the bones are covered with articular cartialge

• Have a joint cavity separating the articulating bones

• Has a joint capsule enclosing the joint

  • Lined with synovial membrane that helps lubricate joint with synovial fluuid

  • Examples: hip, shoulder, elbow, knee

Structure of a Joint

Joints are complex structures consisting of bone, muscle, synovium, cartilage, and ligaments

Joint Structures

Articulating bones

• Bones that come together and ofrm the jointwhere movement happens

Joint Capsule

• Fibrous capsule surroudning the joint

• Connected to the outer layer of the ends of the bones that come together

• Reists dislocation

Synovial membrane

• Loose connective tissue inside the joint capsule that contains elastin and fatty tissue

• Secretes synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint

Meniscus

• Also called “cartilage”

• Pads (kind of like a pillow) that enable articulating bones whose shapes do not match each other exactly to fit more snugly together

Ligaments

• Hold bones together at a joint

• Intracpsular- located inside the articular capsule and surrounded by folds of synovial membrane

• Extracapsular- located outside of the articular capsule, and an may be fused with (attached to) the joint capsule

Bursae

• sac-like structures thfat reduce friction between bones

Joint Movement:

• Synovial joint movement occurs within all three planes of motion: sagittal, frontal, and transverse

• Uniplanar- movement in one direction

  • Elbow, knee

• Biplanar- allow movement in two planes that are perpendicular to each other

  • Finger

• Multiplanar- allow movement in all three planes

  • Hip, shoulder

6 Types of Synovial Joints

Plane/Gliding Joints

• Examples: calvicle and scapula (AC joints); intercarapal and intertarsal joints; Multi-axial joint but limited by surroudning ligaments

• Articular surfaces are flat

Condyloid/ Elipsoidal Joint

• Articular surfaces are oval concave on one side and convex on the other

• Examples:

  • metacarpal/phalanges (knuckles); metatarsal/phalanges (toe knuckles)

• Biaxial- move in two axis

Ball and Socket Joints

• Multiaxial- all three planes of movement

• One end of bone is rounded and articulates into a cup like socket

• Examples: hip; shoulder

Hinge Joints

• Uniaxial- allows flexion and extension

• Conves surface fits into a concave depression on other bone

• Examples: elbow, knee

Saddle Joint

• Biaxial- flexion & extension, and abduction and adduction

• One surface is concave like a saddle, and the other is convex

• Example: Thumb (metacarpal-trapezium) or calcaneal-cuboid joint

Pivot Joint

• Uniaxial

• One articular bone iwth rounded surface fits into a ring formed by a ligament on another bone

• Pivots around an axis

• Examples:

  • proximal radial/ulnar joint that allows the radius to rotate as you pronate and supinate your hand

  • Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2) joint allows you to shake your head “no”

Joint Examples

• Ball and Socket: hip and shoulder

• Pivot: vertebrae

• Hinge: elbow and knee

Four Groups of Movement in Synovial Joints

• Gliding- surfaces of 2 bones move back and forth upon each other

  • Head of a rib and adjoining vertebra

• Angular- increase or decrease in angle between adjoining bones

  • Flexion of lower arm toward the humerus

• Circumduction- sequential combination of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction

  • Shoulder or hip circle motion

• Rotation- motion of a bone around a longitudinal axis

  • Pronation or supination of the hand/arm from the shoulder joint

Hilton’s Law

• A nerve trunk that supplies a joint also supplies the muscles of the joint, tissue, and the slin over the attachments of such muscles

• This is important in that if an individual is injured, it is sometimes difficult to determine if the pain the person feels is coming from the muscle or joint

• Pain from one injured or irritated area can radiate to other areas

• Myofascial release and massage therapy works on an individual’s superficial tissues, it can cause a release of deeper tissues

Joint Diseases

• Osteoarthritis- also called degenerative joint disease

  • Painful condition affecting the ends of bones

  • Hyaline cartilage on the ends of bones and cartilage between bones, start to degenerate or wear away

• Rheumatoid Arthritis- autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks the lining of the joint

  • Causes painful swelling, bone erosion, and joint deformity

Physics of Joint Movement

• Three classes of lever are found in the human body, with fulcra are usually situated at the joint

• All movements of the human body are dependent on the interaction of these three classes of levers

Levers in the Body

• A first class lever is used in balancing weight and/or changing the direction of pull

• There is usually no gain in mechanical advantage

• A second class lever (think of weight lifted in a wheelbarrow)

• It gains mechanical advantage therby allowing large loads to be moved, but with a loss of speed.

• Raising up onto the toes is an example of such a lever system; the metatarsal heads act as the fulcrum, the weight of the body acting down through the tibia is the load while the calf muscles contract to produce the required force.

• A third calss lever is the most common lever found within the body. It works at a mechanical disadvantage moving less weight but odften at great speed

• the biceps brachi acting across the elvow is a good exampel of this calss of lever

• The albow is the fulcrum, the weight is the forearm and hand being supported, with the ofrce being provided by biceps

Kinetic Chain

• Many movements in the human body involve multiple joints

• Kinetic chain: The (sometimes called the kinematic chain) is an engineering concept used to describe human movement

  • Body segments are connected via joints, and this creates a system where movement produced at one joint affects movement at another joint in the kinetic link

Closed Kinetic Chain

• In a clsoed chain exercise, the end of the joint chain is fixed, or stationary

  • Examples: leg press machine, pushup, lung

Open Kinetic Chain

• Open kinetic chain exercises, the segment furthest away from the body - known as the distal aspect, usually the hand or foot is free and not fixed to an object

  • Examples: throw, kick, chest fly with dumbells

Kinetic Chain Exercises

• Athletic trainers, physical therapistsm chiropractors, and personal trainers use kinetic chain exercises to help with injury prevention and recovery, body scultping, and performance enhancement

Stretching vs. Strengthening Muscles

Definitions:

Stretch

• Putting a body part in a position that promotes lengthening and elongation of the muscle or muscle group and improves its flexibility and elasticity.

Strengthen

• Strengthening exercises overload the muscle until the point of muscle fatigue. This force and overload of a muscle ecnourages growth, increasing the strength.

Stretching:

Why Stretch?

• Mobility

• Injury reduction

• Promote relaxation and joint health

How to stretch?

• Move muscle insertion away from muscle origin

• Dynamic vs static

When to stretch

• Cool-down phase of a workout

• Muscles must be warm

Flexibility

• Ability to move a joint through its complete ROM

  • Static vs functional

• Affected by various factors and structures

Flexibility Stretches

Static

• Hold between 15-30 sec

• Warm tissue is more elastic

Dynamic

• Should mimic sport activity

• Several reps, increasing in speed and intensity

Strength

Why strengthen?

• Maintain mobility

• maintain healthy body composition

• Bone density

How to Strengthen

• Bring muscle insertion closer to muscle origin with resistance

When to strengthen?

• 2-4 times per week

• After a dynamic warm-up

Examples:

• Isometric: muscular contraction with no movement

• Isotonic: muscular contraction where the muscle shortens (concentric) and/or lengthens (eccentric)

Definitions:

• Muscular Endurance:

  • Muscle’s ability to continue to perform successive exertions or many repetitions

  • Examples: sit-ups, push-ups, exercises of 12 or more repetitions

• Muscular strength; Maximum force a muscle or muscle group can exert

  • Example: Bench press, squat; goal is lifting heavier weight, not repetitions

• Muscular Power: strength applied over a distance for a specific amount of time

  • Example: Vertical jump, power clean, quick, explosive movements

Functional Training

• Functional strength and mobility preserve the ability to perform motions needed to fulfill daily tasks as the body ages

• Focus on ROM for stretch training

• Focus on muscular balance in strength training

• Include all fundamental movements: push, pull, rotate, lunge/step, squat/, balance, hinge

The Muscular System

Muscular System

• An organ system consisting 3 muscle types

  • Skeletal

  • Smooth

  • Cardiac

• Controlled through the nervous system

  • Voluntary

  • Involuntary

Muscle Types

Three types of muscle:

• Skeletal

  • Attaches to the skeleton via tendons, contracts to move bones

  • Voluntary

  • Striated appearance

• Smooth

  • Found on the walls of hollow organs and tubes (stomach & blood vessels)

  • Involuntary

  • Smooth appearance

• Cardiac

  • Forms the walls of the heart

  • Involuntary

  • Smooth appearance

Functions

• Permits movement of the body

  • Internal

  • External

• Maintains posture

• Body temperature regulation

• Movement of lymph

Characteristics of Muscle

• Defining qualities of muscle tissue function:

• Excitability- ability to react to stimulus

• Contractility- ability to shorten

• Extensibility- ability to lengthen

• Elasticity- ability to return to original resting length

Muscle Architecture

• Parallel- most common

  • Non-fusiform- length of the fibers run parallel to the long axis of the muscle- flat shaped

  • Fusiform- more spindle-shaped; diameter at the center is greater than at either end

• Circular- surround body openings

• Convergent- broad origin converges toward a single tendon of insertion

• Pennate- the fibers are short, and they attach obliquely to a central tendon that runs the length of the muscle

  • Unipennate- insert into only one side of the tendon

  • Bipennate- insert into the tendon from opposite sides so the muscle “grain” resembles a feather

  • Multipennate- like many feathers side by side, with all their quills inserted into one large tendon

Function Based on Fiber Arrangement

• Circular- fibers increase the size of the opening, and when they contract, the size of the opening shrinks to the point of closure

• Convergent- can adapt to different activities by stimulating different regions

• Parallel- greater range of motion and speed of contraction, but less force

• Pennate- only pull at an angle

  • produce relatively more tension for its size

Muscular Anatomy

• Skeletal muscles are made up of many muscle fibers held in place by connective tissue (fascia)

• Fascia is a band or sheet of superficial connective tissue made up primarily of collagen, that attaches, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs

Fascia

*provides support and structure throughout your body, holds muscles together

• Superficial- the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all regions of the body

• Deep- a layer of dense, fibrous connective tissue that surrounds individual muscles and also divides groups of muscles

• Visceral- supports organs within their cavities and wrapos them in layers of connective tissue

Fascia Troubles

• Fascia looks like one sheet of tissue but has many layers

  • Liquid in between called hyaluronan

• Factors that cause fascia to become gummy and crinkle up (adhesions: sticky, rigid spots that stick to nearby muscles and bones) include:

  • Physically inactive lifestyle

  • Repetitive movement

  • Trauma such as surgery or injury

Layers of Muscular Tissue

• Fascia

• Epimysium

• Perimysium

• Endomysium

• Sarcolemna

Microanatomy of a Muscle

Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils (protein filaments) composed of a series of repeating segments called sarcomeres

Sarcomeres, made up of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofliaments, are the functional contracting unit of skeletal muscle

Muscular Contraction

Sliding Filament Model

• When acetylcholine (neruotransmitter) is released from the CNS and detected, calcium is released.

• Calcium exposes binding sites along the actin for the myosin to attach.

• If sufficient ATP is present, cross-bridges are formed and the myosin pulls the actin toward the center, thereby shortening the sarcomere.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

Divided into two general categories based on how quickly they contract

• Slow-twitch muscle fibers contain relatively large amounts of mitochondria and are surrounded by more capillaries than fast-twitch fibers.

  • Contract more slwoly than fast-stwitch fibers

  • Have lower force outputs, but are more fficient and fatigue-resistant than fast-twitch fibers- high aerobic capacity

• Fast -twitch muscle fibers high capacity for anaearobic power

  • Tpye IIX muscle fibers

  • Contain a relatively small amount of mitochondria, have a limtied capacity for aerobic metabolism, and fatigue more easily than slow-twitch fibers

  • Have considerable anaerobic capacity, adn are the largest and fastest, and are capable of producing the most force, of all the skeltal muscle fibers.

  • Type IIa muscle fibers

  • Possess speed, fatigue, and force-production capabilities somewhere between type I and type IIx fibers

  • Type IIa fibers are also called intermediate fibers- can adapt to limited aerobic capacity

Proprioception

• Proprioception is the sense of the orientation of one’s limbs in space

• Without proprioception, humans would need to consciously watch their feet to make sure to stay upright while walking

  • The primary proprioceptors involved in muscular control and coordination are the Golgi tendon organs (GTO) and muscle spindles

  • Give information about muscle length, tension, and joint movement

Muscle Spindles

• Found in the Muscles

• Function to prevent muscles from overstretching by activating “stretch reflex”

Golgi Tendons

• Located in the tendons

• Prevents muscles from over-contracting and promotes involuntary relaxation

• Prevents injury by causing the muscular contraction to release rather than tear

Proprioceptors

• Provide information about movement and perception

• Trigger protective responses

• Proproception vs Kinesthesia

  • Proprioception is related to position and balance or cognitive/ subconscious awareness of your body in space

  • Kinesthesia is related to movement of your body in a behavioral sense- you can make conscious movement adjustments depending on the task or goal of movement

Tendons

Connect muscle to bone by fusing with the epimysium of the muscle and the periosteum of bone

    Aponeurosis- like a tendon but flat- also connects muscle to bone

Tough, cord-like fibrous conncetive tissue - more collagen than elastic fibers

Transmit force from the muscle to the bone causing movement

Ligaments

• Supports a joint by attachign bone to bone

• Contain a greater mixture of collagen and elastic fibers than tendons

Muscular Function Terminology

• Main function is voluntary and involuntary movement

• Origin is where the tendon attachment of muscle begins and the less mobile of the two bones that make up a joint

• Insertion is where the muscle ends and the more mobile of the two bones that make up a joint

• Prime mover or agonist, is the muscle contracting

• The opposing muscle or antagonist, is the muscle that is extending

Origin and Insertion of a Muscle

• Origin is the site of muscle attachment that DOES NOT move when the muscle is contracted

• Insertion is the site of the muscle attachment that DOES move when the muscle is contracted

Types of Muscular Contractions

• Isometric (static)- length of muscle stays the same- joints dont move

• Isotonic (dynamic) joint movement occurs

  • Concentric phase- shortening muscle-lifting phase- flexion

  • Eccentric- lengthening and contracting- down phase- extensions

• Isokinetic (specialized equipment needed to control speed of contraction) used in rehab facilities

Muscle Movement

• Agonist-Primary Movers: primarily responsible or generating the movement; concentric phase (up phase)

• Antagonists- Oppose primary movers; usually lie opposite of the primary movers

• Synergists- muscles that assist primary movers; smaller muscles that help

• Stabilizers- prevent movement; isometric contraction

Movement Phases

• Conentric Phase

  • The “up” phase of an exercise. When the gravity/weight is being lifted. Ex: stadning up from a seated position

• Eccentric Phase

  • The down phase of the movement. When the gravity/ weight is being lowered . Ex: slowly sittign down

Strength vs. Endurace

• Strength

  • The ability of a muscle or group to contract

  • How much resistance can muscle overcome

• Endurance

  • Ability of muscle to contract sub-maximally repeatedly

  • How long can a muscle hold a weight

Strengthen vs Stretch

• Strength is the ability of a muscle to overcome a resistance

  • Requires a muscle to contract against a resistance

• Stretch isthe ability of a muscle to lengthen through a range of motion or ROM

  • Requires tnesio nto be placed on a muscle to lengthen it beyond its resitng length

Muscle Conditions or Injuries

• Muscle Strain- Muscles and/or tendons are damaged

• Ligament Sprain- Damage to a ligament

• Both injuries have degrees of severity

  • First degree- stretched tissues but not torn

  • Second Degree- some of the tissue is torn

  • Third Degree- completely torn tissue

Nervous System

• Functions: Collect information about the body’s external state, analyze it, and initiate appropiate responses.

Nervous System Structure

• Divided into the central nervous and peripheral nervous system

• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord

• The PNS consists of all the nerve structures outside the brain and spinal cord

  • Sensory Division - picks up sensory stim

  • Motor Division - sends directions to te muscles or system

CNS

Brain

• The command center for the human nervous system

• Contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons)

Spinal Cord

• The spinal cord is located in the vertebral foramen and is made up of 31 segments

• Electrical currents tracel up and down the psunal cord, sending signals which allow different segments of the body to communicate with the brain

Brain

• Made of 3 main parts: The Cerebrum, Cerebellum, and the Brainstem

• The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum, which is divided into two hemishperes

• Protected by the skull sespended in cerebrospinal fluid and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier

Meninges

3 protective layers of Brain and Spinal Cord

• Dura Mater

  • Outer layer, thick and tough (bark on tree)

• Arachnoid Mater

  • Web-like, allows for shock absorption, middle layer

  • Cerebrospinal fluid is found in the subarachnoid space

• Pia Mater

  • Deep and vascular, soft for protection of brain matter

Meningitis

• Causes compression or pressure on the brain and spinal cord

• Usually involves the arachnoid mater annd pia mater

• Two Main Types

  • Bacterial: can be cured using antibiotics

  • Viral: not typically as sever but antibitotics dont work, immune system responds (can be deadly)

  • Fungal, Parasistic, amebic form but are very rare

Spinal Cord

• Runs form the foramen magnum where it is continuous with the medulla to the level of the first or second lumbar vertbra where it tapers and then becomes the Cauda Equina

• Housed inside the vertebral foramen

• Spinal cord is sheathed i nthe same three meninges as is the brain: pia, arachnoid and dura mater

• The Spinal Cord is 40-50 cm long and 1 cm to 1.5 cm in diameter

• 2 consectuive rows of nerve roots emerge on each of its sides to form 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• Carries sensory information (sensations) from the body to the brain via afferent fibers

Reflex Loop

• Sometimes called reflex Arc

• Allows for faster reflex action

• Decision made in spinal cord by interneuron in the gray matter

Spinal Cord Cross Section

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord and pass thorugh the intervertebral foramina

• Ventral root is at the fron of the spinal cord

• Dorsal root is at the back of the spina lcord

• Ventral and dorsal roots merge to from the spinal nerve

• Ventral root carries efferent impusles - motor nerves

• Dorsal root carries afferent impusles- sensory nerves

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Made up of nerve fibers and nerbve cell bodies that connect the CNS to perihperhal structures (glands, organs, muscles)

• The PNS can be divided into 2 compontes - the afferent division and the efferent division

  • Afferent information is sent towards the nervous system regarding the environment of the body (sensory)

  • The efferent division sends information from the nervous system to the organs of the body which then carry out the approprate response (motor)

Peripheral Division

Somatic- voluntary system directs skeletal muscles

    Affferent (Sensory)

    Efferent (Motor)

Autonomic- involuntary system that directs functions like heartbeat, breathing, digestion (innervates viscera, smooth muscles and glands)

• Afferent (Sensory)

• Efferent (motor)

  • Sympathetic

  • Parasympathetic

  • Enteric

Response to Stress or Stimuli

Parasympathetic Nervous System

• In control when the body is at rest

• Kee[s heart rate., blood pressure, and metabolism low

Sympathetic Nervous System

• In control when body is exerpeincing stress (flight or fight)

• Signals to the adrenal glands to release hormones epinephrine and noreoinephrine (catecholamines), and cortisol

• Catecholamines cause higher heart rate and faster breathing, muscle tenion; Cortisol increases blood sugar by inhibting insulin

Vagal Response

Vagus Nerve

• 10th cranial nerve

• One of main nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system

• Sensory and motor functions

• Responsible for calming organs after stress response

• Primarily measured through its influence upon heart rate

Exercise (a form of stress) activates sympathetic nervous system

Vagal Withdrawal

• Defined: decreases in vagal activation

• Happen during exercise and other stressors

• After exercise vagal withdrawal is inhibited

Nerves and Neurons

• Nerves are made up of mutliple nerce cells called neurons

Neuron Structures

• Neurons share the same basic strctures

• Cell Body- soma; this is the cells life support system with a nucleus, DNA, mitochondria, ribosomes, cytoplasm

• Dendrites- branch like projections from the soma; they are the “listeners” that pick up information from other cells and convey it to the cell body

• Axon- long extension or fiber; some are short but others can be up to a meter long; they are the “talkers” that transmit messages away from the cell body to other cells

Additional Neuron Strcutres

• Myelin Sheath - surrounds axon to help increase veolicty of impulse conduction

• Synapse- point of contact between neurons (where neurotransmitters are released to either excite or inhibit antoehr neuron)

• Schwann Cells- (a typer of glial cell) are cells which wrap aroudn axons of motor and sensory neurones to form the myelin sheath

• Nodes of Ranvier- a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, ebtween adjacent Schwann cells

Neurons

• Sensroy- have dendrites on both ends, long axon and cell body in the middle

• Motor- cell body on the end, dendrite on one side, and on the other,m a long axon

• Associative (interneurons or relay neurons) neither sensory nor motor but connect neurons with other neurons

Glial Cells

• Neurons only really make up a small part of yoru nervous system; they are outnumbered by glial cells

• The “glue” holds neurons toegther and help maintain homeostasis in the bervous system

• Found in both the CNS and PNS

  • CNS Glail Cells include: Astrocytes, Microglial Cells, Epndymal Cells, Oligodenrocytes

  • PNS Glial Cells include Satellite Cells and Schwann Cells

• Also different glaicl cells perform many functions from support, insulation, assist in signal transmission, insulation, immune defense, and anchoring neurons to their blood supply.

How Nerves Transmit Signals

• The nervous system is your body’s “communication superhighway”

• First a sensory neuron is excited by a stimulus such as sound, rpessure, temperature chagne or an image

• Next neurons carry messages in the form of electircal signals called nerve impusles; the travel from the dendrites to the cell body then down the axon to a synapse

• Finally, at the synapse (gap separating neurons) neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) interpret the mesage to the next neuron’s dendrite and the mesage travels on to the CNS

Damage to Nerves

• Peripheral nerves are fragil and can be easily damaged

• Damge can include: compression, stretching, or a nerve cna be severed

• Examples: Carpal tunnel sysndrome

• Accidents or sport injuries

• Metabolic diseases such as diabetees

• Peripheral neuropathy- a result of damage to your peripnheral nerves; usually because of disease

  • pain can be stabbin, burning or tingling

Motor Unit

• Definition: A motor unit is made up of a single motor neuron as well as all of the muscle fibers that neruon acitvates

• Muscle fibers are activated by motor neurons when they recieve signals from the brain to contract the msucle

• A single motor neuron can control several hundred muscle fibers at a time (large muslce like gluteal muscle) or for more finite musclular movement (lik eye movemnt) a single motor unit may control a single muscle fiber

• All or None Principle

• the all or non law is a principle that states that the strength of a repsonse of a nverve cell or muscle fiber is not dependent upon the strength of those stimulu

• In skeletal muscles, not all fibers will be stimulated during the same interval, but for the ones recruite- there will either be a full reponse or there will be no response at all for an individual neruon or muscle fiber

• What does that mean for skeltal muscle?

• Not all fibers will eb stimulated ruing the same interval

• You cannot partially contract a muscle fiber- it all contracts or it doesnt

Proprioception

• Proprioception- is the sense of the orientation of one’s limb in space

• Proproocepteors are found within the synovial hoin capsules

• Without proprioception, humans would need to consciously watch their feet to stay upright while walking

• The primary receptors involved are the golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles

Musculotendinous Receptors

Two Types of Musculotendinoues Receptors:

• Muscle Spindle

  • Located in the muscle belly lying aprallel to the fibers

  • Causes a reflexive contraction (stretch reflex) the muscle when the muscle senses a stretch force (rotective mechanism)

  • Simultaneously causes the antagonist to relax (reciprocal inhibition), allowing contraction to happen

• GTO

  • Located between te muscle belly and its tendon

  • Causes msucle inhibition (autogenic inhbition) tells the msucel to stop contracting when it senses tension, allowing further muscle stretching to happen and preventing tearing of tendon from bone in extreme cases. (Trainer wants to activate GTO to allow flexibility improvement)

Disorders of the Nervous SYstem

THere are more than 600 neurological diseases. Major types encuntered in Exercise Science field:

• Multiple Sclerosis- Commonly referred to aS MS< mutliple sclerosis - autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system - the brain and spinal cord. Individual with MS may suffer muscualr spasticity, weakness, vertigo, abnormal gait, and general weaknessw

• Fibromyalgia- a chroniz pain state in which the nerve stimuli causing pain origincates mainly in the tissues of the body- characterizes by widespread musculoskeltal pain accompanied by fatigue, sleep, memory and mood issues

• Parkinson’s - a chronci and progressive movement disorder, involves the malfunction adn death of vital nerve cells in the brain, leaving a person unable to control movement normally

• ALS- Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis- is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord; The progressive degeneration ofw the motor neurons in ALS eventually leads to their demise, and control of muscle movement is lost

• Muscular Dystrophy- a group of diseases that cause progressive wekaness and loss of muscle mass; symptoms of the most common variety begin in childhood, primarily in boys.

• Epilepsy - abnormal electrical activity causes seizures

• Vasovagal Syncope- vagus nere overreacts to a trigger and can cause a suden drop in heart rate and blood preasure, resulting in fainting

• Low vagal tone- associated with attention and mood disorders

• Sensory Processing Disorder- a group of disorder wehre a person’s proprioceptors that do not function properly causing them not to have good spatial awareness or sensation of force or tension.

Human Brain

Brain Cells

• Neurons

  • Transmit information

• Glial Cells

  • Oligodendrocytes

  • Microglia

  • Astrocytes

• Endothelial Cells

  • Line blood vessels

  • Blood-brain barrier

Brain Divisions

• Cerebrum

  • Diencephalon

  • Cerebellum

  • Brainstem

Cerebrum

• Largest part of the brain

• Conscious thoughts and actions

• Five senses

• Language

• Logic and Reasoning

• Behavior and Personality

• Working Memory

Diencephalon

• AKA Through Brain

• Connection between cerebrum and rest of the nervous system

• Rest of brain, spinal cord and PNS all send info to cerebrum through the diencephalon

• Thalamus: All sensory info (minus smell); processes info

• Hypothalamus: Regulated homeostasis

Cerebellum

• Comparatively small (little brain)

• Holds more than half the neurons in the body

• Plays a role in emotions and decision-making

• Damage can impair verbal skills, balance, motor skills, and judgement

• Compact tissue

The Brainstem

• Midbrain

  • Hearing, motion, environmental changes

• Pons

  • Origin of 4 cranial nerves

  • “bridge” between midbrain and medulla

• Medulla

  • Essential for survival- controls breathing, heart rhythm

Gray Matter

• Densely packed neurons

• Found in outer layer of cerebrum, deep inside cerebrum, on the oter layer of the cerebleem, and inner layer of spinal cord

• Processes information, thoughts, memories, feelings, emotions, sensory input, muscle motion

White Matter

• Found deep in brain and in the outer portion of spinal cord

• Consists primarily of axons wrapped in myelin sheath that connect Neuron

• “Communication Cables”

  • Carries signals between areas of gray matter

• Learning, recall, balance, walking, emotions

Brain Injury

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

• Causes

  • Blow to the head

  • Object penetration to the head

• Symptoms

  • Can be physical, sensory, or cognitive/behavioral

• Treatment

  • Rest and OTC pain relievers fr mild TBI

  • Emergency are for moderate to severe

Concussion

• Mild to Moderate TBI

• Damage

• Symptoms

  • Can be physical, sensory, or cognitive/ behavioral

Stroke

• Ischemic

• Hemorrhagic/aneurism

• TIA (transient ischemic attack)

Complications

• Loss of msucel control

• Cognitive or memory issues

• Difficulty talking or swallowing

• Behavioral or emotional changes

Diseas that Affect the Brain

• Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

• Multiple Sclerosis

• Muscular Dystrophy

• Epilepsy

• Brain TUmors

• Autism

• Demntia

• Alzheimers

• Parkinsons