International Relations – Historical Evolution, Orders, and Globalization

Historical Context of International Relations

Imagine the world is like a big playground, and countries are like different groups of friends. These groups of friends (countries) live side-by-side but don't have one big teacher or boss for everyone. So, the main puzzle is: How do they all get along and stay peaceful when there's no main boss?

They get along by doing regular things together, like trading toys (trade), sending messages to each other (diplomacy), sharing ideas, and people moving from one group to another. These actions make them need each other.

International order means “countries are friends or neighbors who do things together regularly, and they all agree that each group is in charge of its own space.”

Early Forms of International Society

The idea of countries working together started a very, very long time ago:

In ancient cities like Sumer, they made promises (treaties) and traded along big rivers.
In old Middle Eastern lands, people sent special letters to talk between rulers.
Big empires like the Byzantine and Ottoman empires had very fancy ways of talking to other leaders.

Some parts of the world had their own ways for countries to interact:

In ancient China, smaller groups would give gifts to the emperor to show respect. This was like a family system. India also had its own ways.
The Roman Empire had its own rules for how to deal with different groups.
Islamic caliphates had their own ideas about their land versus other lands.
In Europe long ago, the Catholic Church was like a big rule-maker, telling kings when it was okay to fight wars or how to make laws.
European countries were always trying to be stronger than each other, which made them invent better weapons and ships. This helped them travel all over the world.

Trade & Interdependence

Trading things has always been super important for how countries get along.

If countries trade a lot, they are less likely to fight wars. This is like saying, “If we play together nicely, we won't want to fight because then we can’t play anymore!”

A very old example of a huge company that worked in many countries:

The East India Company from England started in 1601. It traded with India and China and was one of the biggest companies in the world for about 200 years.
Today, there are over 80,000 huge companies that work in many different countries.

Why does more trade make countries more peaceful? (Because they don't want to lose the good things they get from trading, they make friends who like trading, and they learn more about each other).

The Emergence of the Modern International Order (19th–21st C.)

Only in the last 200 years did the world truly become like one big interconnected system:

A global economy where people buy and sell goods everywhere, like a giant worldwide market.
A global state system where countries all over the world started using similar rules for talking to each other, like Europe did.
Global circulation of ideas like freedom, wanting to be your own country, helping poor people, and human rights, which spread everywhere.

It was like a lot of separate playgrounds (regions) all joined up into one huge playground, and at first, the rules were mostly set by groups from the Western part of the world.

The Westphalian Settlement (1648) & the Nation-State

There was a very long and terrible war in Europe called the Thirty Years’ War (from 1618 to 1648). About 8 million people died from fighting, hunger, and sickness.

After this war, they made special agreements called the Peace Treaties of Westphalia.

These agreements became the really important starting rules for how countries work today.
They created the idea of balance of power, meaning countries should try to be roughly equal in strength so no one country becomes too powerful and bullies others.
Countries agreed to respect each other's rulers, which led to the birth of sovereign territorial states – countries that are in charge of their own land.

The three main ideas from Westphalia are:

Territoriality – Each country has clear, fixed lines around it, like a fence around your house, and it's in charge of only what's inside that fence.
Sovereignty – Inside those borders, the country's government is the boss and makes all the rules, and no other country can tell it what to do.
Autonomy/Self-determination – Each country is like its own special box where its people decide how they want to live and be governed.

Contemporary Ingredients of International Society

The rules that became strong after 1648 (and were updated by the UN in 1945) include:

Sovereignty & non-intervention: Countries are independent and shouldn't get involved in other countries' inside problems.
Balance of power: Countries try to stay strong enough so no one country can take over.
International law: There are rules that all countries should try to follow.
Professionalised diplomacy: Countries talk to each other through special people (like ambassadors) who know how to negotiate, how to give help, or how to use punishments to get other countries to do things.

The UN Charter – Article 2 says again that:

(1) All countries in the UN are equal.
(3) Countries should solve their fights peacefully.
(4) Countries should not use or threaten to use force against another country’s land or its way of governing itself.
(7) Countries should not mess with how other countries run their own affairs (unless the UN Security Council decides it’s a big problem that needs strong action).

The Great Divergence (≈1800–1913)

Around 1800 to 1913, something big changed: power shifted from Asia to the Western countries.

In 1820, Asian countries made 60.7% of the world's money.
By 1913, Western countries made 68.3% of it.
China went from making 33% of the world's money to only 6%; India went from 20% to 2%.

Three main things helped this change:

Industrialisation → Countries started making many things in factories, which made the world market much, much bigger.
Rise of the “Rational State” → Countries became better organized, with clear rules, ways to collect money (taxes), and ways to get many people to join their armies.
Imperialism – This means powerful countries took over and ruled other lands, making them colonies. At its biggest in 1913, the British Empire was huge: 35.5 million square kilometers (that’s 24% of all the land on Earth!) and had 413 million people (which was 23% of everyone in the world).

The Age of ‘Total Wars’ (1914–1945)

Total war = when entire countries, all their people, and all their factories are used to fight a war. Many, many people died.

World War I:

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) ended this war, but it didn't really make Europe safe for long.
The League of Nations (1920) – was the first try to get all countries to work together for safety, but it wasn't strong enough.

World War II:

Bretton Woods (1944): Right before the war ended, many countries met and agreed on rules for how money would work after the war. This was like setting up a worldwide bank.
44 countries agreed to this; they brought back a simple version of the gold standard for money.
They created the IMF (to keep money exchange rates steady) and the IBRD/World Bank (to help rebuild countries and help poor countries grow).
Yalta Conference (1945): Big leaders met to decide what would happen to Europe after the war.
The United Nations (formed in 1945) took the place of the League of Nations. Its main jobs are to help keep peace, make sure countries are safe, and encourage countries to work together.
NATO (1949) – was formed by Western countries to protect each other.
Warsaw Pact (1955–1991) – was a group of countries led by the Soviet Union that was formed to counter NATO.

Decolonisation & Diffusion of the European Model

In the 20th century, many countries that were once colonies became independent. When they became independent, they often used the same setup as European countries (a sovereign state).

Sometimes, this caused problems because the new borders didn't match where different groups of people or tribes lived, leading to fights.
This process was also mixed up with the Cold War, as big powers tried to get the new countries on their side.

The Cold War (≈1947–1991)

This was a time of big tension between two main groups: the USA-led Western Bloc and the USSR-led Eastern Bloc. They didn't fight directly, but they were rivals.

It started because they couldn't agree after World War II, and they had very different ideas about how the world should work.

Some key moments and ideas:

Truman Doctrine (1947): The U.S. decided to try and contain (stop) the Soviet Union from spreading its power. This led to the Marshall Plan (>{15} billion) to help Europe, and Turkey and Greece joined NATO.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): This was the scary idea that if one side used nuclear bombs, the other side would use theirs too, and everyone would be destroyed. So, no one used them.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): This was a very dangerous time when the world was close to a nuclear war. The Soviet Union put missiles in Cuba, but then took them away after the U.S. blocked their ships.

They competed in many ways: fighting wars in other countries (like Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan), spreading messages (propaganda), spying, playing in the Olympics, and even racing to space.

How it ended:

A leader named Gorbachev’s “new thinking” → Glasnost (being more open) and Perestroika (changing how things worked). These ideas made people want to be independent.
In 1989, many countries became free (like Poland, East Germany), and the Soviet Union itself broke apart in 1991.

Post-Cold War Balance

After the Cold War, the U.S. was the main superpower. Europe and the U.S. had both strong military power and soft power (which means their ideas about democracy, human rights, and the “American Dream” spread around the world).
The EU (European Union) became a great example of countries in Europe working very closely together, leading to peace and good times.
Russia lost its place as a top world power, but it still has the largest nuclear arsenal (the most nuclear weapons).
Asia: Countries in Asia grew very fast, especially China. This made China very rich and powerful, but also caused some tension (for example, with North and South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong).
Many developing countries (poorer countries) still owed a lot of debt (money) to rich countries.

Key Global & Regional Institutions

NATO – Has 29 members and they promise to defend each other if one is attacked.
Bretton Woods System – This includes the IMF and World Bank, which help manage money and finances around the world.
UN – This is like a big meeting place for almost all countries, helping with peace and safety.
European Union – Has 27 members and is a strong group of countries that work together on money and politics.
ASEAN – Countries in Southeast Asia work together for money and culture.

9/11 & the War on Terror

The terrible attacks (11 Sept 2001) marked the end of the peaceful time after the Cold War. It changed how the U.S. planned its big world actions.

The Global War on Terror (GWOT) was started by President G.W. Bush:

The targets were groups that used violence like Al-Qaeda and later ISIS, and countries that helped them.
This led to countries sharing a lot of secret information, and police and military from all over the world working together like never before.

Iraq War (2003) – This war was officially against terror, but people still talk about other reasons for it (like fears about dangerous weapons, spreading democracy, oil, or controlling the region).

Middle East Transformations

Arab Spring (2011):

A wave of protests where people wanted more freedom and democracy (started in Tunisia and spread to Egypt, Libya, Syria, Bahrain, Morocco).
This led to new political groups that leaned towards religious ideas, and discussions about new country rules.

Ongoing crises:

Russia’s annexation of Crimea & invasion of Ukraine (2014–, escalated 2022). Russia took a part of Ukraine and then invaded the country.
Hamas attack on Israel & Gaza conflict. A violent attack by Hamas on Israel leading to a big fight in Gaza.

Broader trend: More and more countries are seeing populism (leaders who say they represent the regular people against the elite) and nationalism (feeling strongly about your own country being the best) all over the world. These ideas make it harder for countries to work together.

Rising Powers & the Emerging Global Order

BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and other growing economies want to have a bigger say in how the world is run (about money, climate change, and nuclear weapons).
To be seen as a big world power, a country needs other countries to respect and accept its power.
Realist/Neorealist ideas: Some people think that when new strong countries rise, it will mess up the balance of power, and that a fight between the U.S. and China is “unavoidable.”
NATO growing eastward (closer to Russia) makes the tensions between Russia and the West worse.
Projected 2050 GDP (billions 2016 US$) (Statista 2024): China 58{,}499; India 44{,}128; U.S. 34{,}102; Indonesia 10{,}502; Brazil 7{,}131; Russia 6{,}863; Mexico 6{,}779; Japan 6{,}138; Germany 5{,}369; U.K. ?? (the chart shows a similar amount for the UK).

Globalization: Definitions & Dynamics

Definition (World Bank/IMF): Globalization is when economies, cultures, and groups of people become more and more connected to each other across borders through the movement of goods, services, money, technology, ideas, and people.
Pandemic case study: COVID-19 temporarily stopped people and goods from moving freely, showing how weak interconnected supply chains (how things get made and moved around the world) can be.
Technological catalysts: The internet, phones, big ships that carry containers, and jet travel all help this connection. The world feels like it's getting “next-door neighbours.”

Mapping Globalization (Baylis 2023)

In 2007, global flows (money, goods, services) were about 53% of all the money made in the world.
Transnational corporations (TNCs) make 33% of all goods and services in the world and do 30% of all world trade.
This is made possible by:
- Global communications infrastructure: Like the internet and phone lines all over the world.
- Just-in-time production networks: Making things only when they are needed, which requires fast movement around the globe.
- Real-time digital mobilisation (social media activism): People sharing ideas and organizing quickly through social media.

Analytical Dimensions (McGrew 2023)

Stretching – Activities now happen over much longer distances.
Intensification – Connections are tighter and faster across different areas (money, nature, culture).
Acceleration – Things move faster and faster around the world.
Deepening – What happens locally and globally are mixed together; what happens far away can affect you.
Reflexivity – People are aware that they are part of these big world systems.

Engines of Contemporary Globalisation

Technics – Huge changes in how we travel and communicate (like the internet).
Economics – The worldwide system of buying and selling (capitalism), markets getting bigger, and big companies' plans.
Politics – Governments making rules that open up trade, international groups working together, and ideas like spreading democracy.

Conceptual Reflections

Globalisation = “uneven widening, deepening, intensification & acceleration of trans-world connectivity” (McGrew).
Metaphor: The world is “shrinking.”
Debate: Is this something totally new, or just a modern name for old ways of connecting (like the Silk Road)?
Blurred lines between domestic & foreign policy: Now, security, money matters, and the environment are all connected, whether they are about your own country or other countries.

Recent Ethical, Philosophical & Practical Implications

Sovereignty vs. Human Rights tension (R2P debates, humanitarian intervention): This is about whether a country's right to be independent is more important than protecting people from harm inside that country.
Interdependence creates shared vulnerabilities (climate change, pandemics, financial crises): When countries rely on each other, they also share risks like climate problems, sicknesses that spread easily, or money problems.
Power diffusion challenges legitimacy of post-1945 institutions (IMF quota reform, UNSC seat debates): As new countries become powerful, they question if old international groups (like the IMF or UN Security Council) are still fair and correct.
Rise of populism questions global-liberal consensus; nationalism complicates cooperative problem-solving: When people prefer leaders who put their own country first, it makes it harder for countries to work together on big global problems.

Numerical & Statistical Highlights (LaTeX Notation)

Asian share of GDP (1820): 60.7% ; Western share (1913): 68.3%
British Empire land area (1913): 35.5\text{ million km}^2 (24% of Earth’s land) ; population 413\text{ million} (23% of world).
Projected China GDP 2050: 58{,}499\text{ bn} (2016 US$).
MNC count today: > 80{,}000.
League of Nations founded 1920; UN founded 1945.

Bibliographic Anchor Points

Baylis, J. & Smith, S. (2023) The Globalization of World Politics.
Mingst, K. & Arreguín-Toft, I. (2014) Essentials of International Relations.
Nau, H. R. (2010) International Relations in Perspective: A Reader.