International Relations 1919-1933 (europe)

Problems Following the Paris Peace Conference (Post-1919)

  • Dissatisfaction Among Nations:

    • Turkey and Italy felt unfairly treated by the Paris Peace treaties.

    • Italy seized Fiume and had a dispute with Greece in the Corfu Incident.

    • Turkey overturned the Treaty of Sèvres with the Treaty of Lausanne.

  • German Reparations:

    • Strained relations between France and Britain over Germany's economic recovery due to the reparations demanded.

    • Tension between Germany and France, exemplified by the Genoa Conference and the occupation of the Ruhr.

  • USA's Isolationism:

    • The United States adopted an isolationist stance and insisted on the repayment of war debts by its allies.

  • Suspicion of Bolshevik Russia:

    • Distrust of Bolshevik Russia and involvement in the Russian Civil War by other nations.

  • Challenges for 'Successor' States:

    • New nations faced initial difficulties in establishing themselves.

Period of Apparent Improvement (1924-1929)

  • New Leadership:

    • The emergence of new leaders like Herriot, Briand, Stresemann, and Ramsay MacDonald, who replaced wartime leaders, contributed to improved international relations.

  • Easing of Tensions:

    • The Dawes Plan, Young Plan, Locarno Treaties, and Kellogg-Briand Pact collectively seemed to reduce international tensions.

Return to Conflict (1930-1933)

  • Economic Depression:

    • The economic depression led to renewed conflicts, including economic motivations behind Japan's invasion of Manchuria and the rise of Hitler in Germany.

  • Decline of the League of Nations:

    • The League of Nations initially appeared promising but became increasingly ineffective after 1930.

Washington Conferences (1921-1922)

  • Initiation:

    • Called by US President Warren Harding due to concerns about Japan's intentions in the Far East and China.

  • Agreements:

    • Naval limitations were agreed upon: The Japanese navy was limited to 3/5 the size of the US and British navies.

    • Japan agreed to withdraw from parts of China it had annexed in 1914.

  • Assessment:

    • While hailed as a success, Japan maintained the world's third-largest navy, concentrated in one area, while US and British navies were more dispersed.

Genoa Conference (1922)

  • Initiation:

    • Initiated by Lloyd George to alleviate Franco-German tensions, as Germany threatened to cease reparation payments.

    • France and Britain faced war debt issues, with concerns about Russia.

  • Failure:

    • The conference failed due to France's unwillingness to compromise.

    • The USA refused to participate.

    • Germany and Russia withdrew and signed a separate agreement at Rapallo.( the peace treaty between germany and russia)

Ruhr Crisis (1923-1924)

  • Reparations:

    • Reparations were set at £6.6 billion.

  • German Default:

    • Germany defaulted on its second installment in January 1923.

  • French Occupation:

    • France, with Belgium's aid, invaded the Ruhr region to seize coal and timber as payment in kind.

  • Passive Resistance:

    • Approximately 100 people died during the occupation.

    • Germany responded with passive resistance, as workers went on strike.

  • Economic Consequences:

    • Lack of production and evacuation led to hyperinflation, as the government printed more money.

  • Resolution:

    • In August 1923, Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor and addressed the crisis by restarting reparation payments and introducing the Rentenmark.

Dawes and Young Plans (1924 and 1929)

  • Purpose:

    • Aimed to resolve the issue of German reparation payments and Allied war debts.

  • Key Figures:

    • MacDonald, Herriot, and Stresemann sought a solution.

  • Terms:

    • No reduction in the total amount to be paid by Germany, but the payment schedule was adjusted to be more manageable.

    • France agreed to withdraw from the Ruhr.

Further Adjustments and the End of Reparations

  • Young Plan (1929):

    • France was ready for further compromise, and the Young Plan reduced Germany's payment to £2 billion over 59 years.

  • End of Reparations:

    • Following Stresemann's death and the onset of the depression, the Lausanne Conference effectively relieved Germany of most of the remaining reparations.

    • Hitler's rise to power followed the subsequent year.

Locarno Treaties (1925)

  • Participants:

    • Germany, France, Britain, Belgium, Italy, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.

  • Key Agreement:

    • Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to respect their mutual borders.

    • Britain and Italy promised to assist any nation attacked.

  • Eastern Borders:

    • Germany did not guarantee its eastern borders but allowed for arbitration in case of disputes.

    • France pledged to assist Poland or Czechoslovakia if attacked by Germany.

  • Significance:

    • The treaties were initially greeted with enthusiasm, known as the "spirit of Locarno."

    • The eastern frontier remained a potential point of conflict.

    • Britain made no firm commitments.

    • Germany was admitted to the League of Nations in 1926.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

  • Proposal:

    • French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand proposed an agreement between France and the USA renouncing war.

  • Expansion:

    • US Secretary of State Frank Kellogg suggested opening the pact to all countries.

  • Signatories:

    • A total of 65 countries signed the pact.

  • Weakness:

    • The pact lacked any specified sanctions for countries that failed to comply, rendering it ultimately ineffective.

World Disarmament Conference (1932-1933)

  • Goal:

    • All League of Nations members had theoretically agreed to arms reduction, but only Germany had fully complied.

  • Obstacles:

    • Britain stated it needed arms for its empire, and France was concerned about the rise of the Nazis.

  • Failure:

    • When Hitler became Chancellor, he withdrew from the Conference and soon after from the League of Nations, effectively ending any progress.