IVCD Key Points
Early Chinese Printing:
Invention and Techniques:
Printing was first developed by the Chinese, with the earliest method being relief/block printing.
Relief/block printing involved cutting away spaces around an image on a flat surface, inking the remaining raised surface, and pressing paper onto it to transfer the image.
Theories of Origin:
Theory 1: Derived from engraved seals used for identification imprints, dating back to the third century BCE.
Seals called chops were made from jade, silver, gold, or ivory, inked with cinnabar paste, and pressed onto a substrate.
Theory 2: Developed from making inked rubbings of stone inscriptions, ensuring accurate and permanent records.
Rubbings involved applying a damp sheet of paper to the stone, pressing it into depressions with a stiff brush, and rubbing an inked cloth over the surface.
Applications and Advancements:
By the early ninth century, the Chinese government printed paper money in response to an iron money shortage.
Paper money was printed on perfumed, high-silk-content paper.
Block prints bearing religious images and texts also saw wide distribution.
Around 1045 CE, Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng developed movable type.
Movable type involved carving individual characters from clay and glue, baking them, and arranging them on an iron plate with wax.
Characters could be reused and rearranged, significantly enhancing printing efficiency.
Invention of Paper:
Attributed to Cai Lun in 105 CE, made from natural fibers like mulberry bark, hemp, and rags.
Paper's early uses included writing, wrapping, wallpaper, and napkins.
Papermaking spread from China to Europe over centuries, reaching the Arab world and then Europe.
Papyrus:
Early Egyptian writing material made from the Cyperus papyrus plant.
Produced by layering strips of the plant and pressing them into sheets.
Used for scrolls, which were rolled onto dowels.
Parchment:
Made from animal skins, washed, stretched, and smoothed.
Vellum, a fine type of parchment, was used for codices, which replaced scrolls.
Codices allowed for writing on both sides and easier access to information.
Art Nouveau (1890-1910):
International decorative style encompassing architecture, furniture, product design, fashion, and graphics.
Characterized by organic, plant-like lines and motifs like vine tendrils, flowers, birds, and the female form.
Prominent artists included Jules Chéret, Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, and Alphonse Mucha.
Influenced by sources like Japanese art, Celtic ornament, and the Arts & Crafts movement.
Emphasized integrating art into everyday life and improving the visual quality of mass communication.
Art Nouveau Graphic Artists:
Jules Chéret (1836-1933):
Known as the father of the modern poster.
His vibrant compositions featured "Chérettes," idealized modern women.
Created posters for music halls, theatres, beverages, medicines, and more.
Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901):
Captured Parisian nightlife with simplified shapes and dynamic spatial relationships.
Known for his poster "La Goulue au Moulin Rouge."
Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939):
Known for stylized, exotic female figures and intricate hair patterns.
Created iconic posters for actress Sarah Bernhardt.
Post-Cubist Pictorial Modernism – Art Deco:
A movement characterized by geometric forms and simplified natural shapes.
Cassandre:
Known for integrating words and images into cohesive compositions.
Celebrated machine aesthetics in his works for railways and steamship lines.
Created the iconic Dubonnet liqueur poster series.
The Rise of American Editorial and Advertising Design
Harper and Brothers
Foundation: Started by the four Harper brothers in 1817.
Growth: Became the largest printing and publishing firm by mid-century.
Influence: Fletcher Harper, the senior editor, shaped American graphic communications for 50 years.
Innovations: Launched the era of the pictorial magazine in 1850 with publications like:
Harper’s New Monthly Magazine
Harper's Weekly
Harper’s Bazaar
Harper’s Young People
Harper's Weekly and Thomas Nast
Production: Developed an elaborate system for rapid production of woodblocks for cartoons and reportage.
Thomas Nast: Hired to create battlefield sketches during the Civil War. Recognized by President Lincoln and General Grant for his impactful work.
Impact: Nast's work significantly increased the magazine's circulation and established him as the father of American political cartooning.
Expansion of Literacy and Advertising
Literacy and Production: Rising literacy, lower production costs, and increased advertising revenue grew the number of newspapers and magazines from 800 to 5000 between 1830-1860.
Advertising Agencies: The concept of a full-service advertising agency was pioneered by N.W. Ayer and Son, offering copywriting, art direction, production, and media selection.
Wartime Graphics
U.S. Office of War Information: Commissioned diverse groups of artists for propaganda during WWII.
Jean Carlu’s Poster: "America’s answer! Production" was a significant wartime poster with over 100,000 copies distributed.
The New Advertising (1940s and Beyond)
1940s Advertising: Dominated by repetitive slogans and exaggerated claims, with occasional design excellence.
Doyle Dane Bernbach (DDB): Founded in 1949, revolutionized advertising by integrating verbal and visual communication.
Approach: Used white space effectively, fused word and image, and focused on simple, symmetrical design.
Creative Teams: Art directors and writers worked together to create cohesive advertisements.
Key Characteristics: Large visuals, bold headlines, and factual, entertaining body copy.
Television Advertising
Growth: Television broadcasting began in 1941 and expanded rapidly post-WWII.
Dominance: By the early 1960s, TV became the second-largest advertising medium after newspapers.
DDB's Role: Became a training ground for innovative advertising, focusing on persuasive selling techniques and emotional appeals.
Summary of Key Points and Contributions
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce: First photographic image, Heliogravure process.
Louis Jacques Daguerre: Daguerreotype process.
William Henry Fox Talbot: Calotype process, photographic negatives/positives.
Frederick Scott Archer: Wet-plate collodion process.
George Eastman: Gelatin-emulsion dry plates, Kodak camera.
Mathew Brady: Civil War documentation.
Herbert Matter: Modernist photography and design.
Thomas Nast: Father of American political cartooning, increased Harper’s Weekly circulation.
N.W. Ayer and Son: Pioneered the full-service advertising agency.
Jean Carlu: Significant wartime poster designer.
Doyle Dane Bernbach: Revolutionized advertising with integrated visual and verbal communication.
Photography, the New Commercial Tool
Camera Obscura
Origins: Known since Aristotle's time (4th century BCE).
Function: A dark chamber or box with a small opening that projects an external image onto the opposite side.
Usage: Used by artists for centuries to aid in drawing.
The Invention of Photography
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833)
Objective: Sought an automatic means of transferring drawings to printing plates.
1822: Created Heliogravure by contact-printing a drawing on a pewter plate coated with light-sensitive asphalt.
1826: Produced the earliest extant photograph using a camera obscura and a pewter plate exposed to sunlight.
Louis Jacques Daguerre (1799-1851)
Collaboration with Niépce: Continued Niépce's work after his death.
1839: Introduced the Daguerreotype process, which produced highly detailed images on silver-plated copper plates using a chemical development process.
William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877)
Invention: Created the Calotype process using light-sensitive paper to produce photographic negatives and positives.
Contributions: Developed means to fix images and improve clarity with help from Sir John Herschel.
Frederick Scott Archer (1813-1857)
1851: Developed the wet-plate collodion process, which offered fine detail but required immediate exposure and development.
George Eastman (1854-1932)
1877: Introduction of gelatin-emulsion dry plates.
1888: Released the Kodak camera, making photography accessible to the general public.
Photography as Reportage
Mathew Brady (1822-1896)
Civil War Documentation: Brady's mobile studio captured crucial historical moments, profoundly affecting public perception of war.
Post-Civil War and Exploration
Expansion: Photography documented new territories and the American West.
Technical Innovations: Stereoscopic images created three-dimensional effects, becoming popular collectibles.
New Approaches to Photography
Herbert Matter (1907-1984)
Modernism: Used montage, dynamic scale changes, and integration of photography and typography.
1930s Posters: Designed for the Swiss National Tourist Office, using photographic images as pictorial symbols.
Photomontage and Collage
Dada Movement
Origins: Reaction to World War I horrors.
Philosophy: Anti-art, shock, protest, and nonsense. Sought complete freedom from tradition.
Techniques: Invented photomontage, using found objects and images to create jarring juxtapositions and unintended associations.
Impact: Influenced graphic design by rejecting conventional aesthetics.
Key Figures and Contributions
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce: First photographic image.
Louis Jacques Daguerre: Daguerreotype process.
William Henry Fox Talbot: Calotype process and photographic negatives/positives.
Frederick Scott Archer: Wet-plate collodion process.
George Eastman: Gelatin-emulsion dry plates, Kodak camera.
Mathew Brady: Civil War documentation.
Herbert Matter: Modernist photography and design.
Dada Artists: Development of photomontage and collage techniques.
History of Typography:
18th Century Typographic Originality:
Romain du Roi: Commissioned by Louis XIV in 1692, designed by Nicolas Jaugeon, characterized by increased contrast between thick and thin strokes and sharp horizontal serifs.
William Caslon (1692-1766): Created Caslon Old Style in 1722, dominant in English printing for 60 years.
Robert Thorne: Innovated the "fat face" typestyle around 1803.
William Caslon IV: Introduced sans-serif typefaces in 1816.
International Typographic Style (1950s):
Emerged in Switzerland and Germany, characterized by asymmetrical design, sans-serif typography, and mathematical grids.
Key proponents included Emil Ruder.
American Conceptual Images:
Decline of Narrative Illustration:
Post-WWII, photography began to replace illustration.
Rise of conceptual illustration by artists like Seymour Chwast, Milton Glaser, Reynolds Ruffins, and Edward Sorel through the Push Pin Almanack and Push Pin Studios.
Conceptual illustration focused on ideas rather than just narrative information.
Push Pin Studio:
Known for combining image making and layout into a cohesive whole.
Seymour Chwast used diverse media and styles, integrating figurative and alphabetic information.
Photography and Conceptual Illustration in American Graphic Design
Decline of Traditional Illustration
Golden Age Ending: The 1950s marked the decline of American narrative illustration, which had dominated for over 50 years.
Rise of Photography: Advances in paper, printing, and photography allowed for better lighting conditions and image fidelity, challenging the dominance of illustrators.
Illustration Techniques: Traditional illustrators used exaggerated contrasts, intensified colors, and sharp details to create convincing images.
Impact: With photography's improvements, it began to take over traditional illustration markets.
Emergence of Conceptual Illustration
New Approach: As photography replaced traditional illustration, a conceptual approach emerged.
Key Figures: A group of young New York graphic artists, including Seymour Chwast, Milton Glaser, Reynolds Ruffins, and Edward Sorel, pioneered this new style.
Push Pin Studio: Formed by Glaser and Chwast after Ruffins and Sorel left, it became a hub for innovation in illustration and design.
Push Pin Studio and Its Influence
Push Pin Almanack: The studio's bimonthly publication featured editorial material from old almanacs, illustrated by the group.
Global Impact: The philosophies and visions of Push Pin Studio artists influenced graphic design worldwide.
Unified Design: Artists like Glaser and Chwast integrated image making and layout into a cohesive communication, similar to earlier designers like Alphonse Mucha and Will Bradley.
Techniques and Styles
Seymour Chwast: Known for personal yet universal communication, Chwast used line drawings overlaid with adhesive color films and experimented with various media. His work often featured echoes of children's art, primitive art, folk art, expressionist woodcuts, and comic books. He maintained a flatness and used intense, frontal color.
Fused Images: Designers combined symbols to create "fused images," uniting form and content for memorable visuals.
Paul Rand: His cover for "Modern Art in Your Life" used a household place setting and artists' tools to create a visual metaphor.
Louis Danziger: Created a memorable image using the American flag and an artist’s paintbrush for the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Summary of Key Points
Photography's Rise: Improvements in photographic technology challenged traditional illustration, leading to its decline.
Conceptual Illustration: New York artists like Chwast and Glaser developed a conceptual illustration style, leading to the formation of Push Pin Studio.
Push Pin's Influence: Push Pin Studio's work had a global impact, integrating image making and design into a unified whole.
Innovative Techniques: Artists employed new techniques such as fused images, combining symbols to create impactful visuals.
Pop Art (1954-1970):
International Movement:
Key figures: Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg.
Art reflected consumerism and materialism, blurring boundaries between high art and popular culture.
Influences: Dadaism and reaction against Abstract Expressionism.
Warhol: Known for Campbell's Soup Cans and consumer-product sculptures.
Lichtenstein: Used comic strips and advertisements as motifs.
Inventions and Innovations:
Photography: Began to dominate illustration due to improvements in materials and processes.
Graphical User Interface (GUI): Not directly mentioned but important in the context of modern graphic design.
“x-y position indicator for a display system”: Early term for the computer mouse.
First Commercial Search Engine: Archie, created by Alan Emtage.
Isotype Concept:
Use of pictographs to convey information.
Stands for International System of Typographic Picture Education.
Important Figures:
William Playfair: Inventor of the pie chart and the line graph.
Paul Rand: Known for the 1981 IBM poster using a word puzzle system.
Andy Warhol: Creator of the iconic Campbell's Soup Can paintings.
Claes Oldenburg: Notable for the "Soft Toilet" sculpture.
Corporate Identity and Its Development
Corporate Identity Defined
Concept: A corporate identity is the overall image of a corporation, firm, or business in the minds of a diverse publics, including customers, investors, and employees.
Example: Paul Rand’s Eye-Bee-M poster for IBM, utilizing the rebus principle to represent the company’s motto, "THINK."
Historical Roots and Influences
Egyptian Hieroglyphs
Description: Hieroglyphs used pictograms to depict objects or beings, phonograms to denote sounds, and determinatives to identify categories.
Rebus Principle: Early Egyptian scribes used the rebus principle, substituting pictures for sounds to write words difficult to express visually.
Example: Hieroglyphs for bee, leaf, sea, and sun could represent "belief" and "season" using English.
Paul Rand and the Rebus System
Application: Rand utilized the rebus system in his 1981 IBM poster, blending visuals and text to communicate effectively.
Design Elements: Rand’s designs often incorporated simple, memorable symbols that conveyed complex ideas.
Giovanni Pintori at Olivetti
Influence: Pintori’s work for Olivetti demonstrated the power of a unified visual identity without a systematic design program.
Design Characteristics: His posters often featured simplified graphic shapes and abstract configurations that subtly suggested the function or purpose of products.
Impact: Olivetti's commitment to design excellence garnered international recognition.
Evolution of Visual Identification Systems
The International Typographic Style in America
Origins: Emerging from Switzerland and Germany in the 1950s, this style emphasized clarity and order.
Influence in America: Designers like Rudolph de Harak adapted Swiss design principles, using grid structures and asymmetrical balance.
Applications: De Harak’s work included album covers and book jackets, employing a uniform typographic system and grid to convey subjects through visual configurations.
Norman Ives on Logo Design
Philosophy: Ives described logos as symbols that should clearly convey the activity they represent, being memorable, legible, and versatile.
Design Approach: Designers must create unique forms for letters that maintain recognizability and effectiveness across various sizes and contexts.
Programmed Visual Identification Systems
Systematic Design Programs
Development: The 1960s saw the rise of highly systematic design programs, influenced by the International Typographic Style and the visual-identity movement.
Lufthansa Case Study: The 1962 identification system for Lufthansa German Airlines addressed all visual-communication and product-design needs, exemplifying a comprehensive corporate identity.
Transportation Signage Symbols
Need for Standardization
Challenge: Major international events and transportation facilities required consistent and simple signage to communicate with international travelers.
AIGA Project: In 1974, the U.S. Department of Transportation commissioned the American Institute of Graphic Arts to create a master set of thirty-four symbols for transportation facilities.
Cook and Shanosky’s Contribution
Design: Roger Cook and Don Shanosky designed a unified symbol system to bridge language barriers and simplify messages.
Impact: The final set of symbols, introduced through a widely distributed poster, became a standard in transportation facilities worldwide.
Conclusion
Corporate Identity Essentials
Unified Image: A strong corporate identity combines visual elements into a cohesive whole, representing the company’s values and mission.
Historical Context: The evolution of corporate identity design reflects broader trends in graphic design, from ancient hieroglyphs to modern systematic programs.
Influential Designers: Pioneers like Paul Rand, Giovanni Pintori, and practitioners of the International Typographic Style have shaped the principles and practices of corporate identity design.
THE ORIGINS OF INFORMATION GRAPHICS
Analytic Geometry and Rene Descartes:
Analytic geometry, developed by Rene Descartes in 1637, laid the foundation for information graphics.
Descartes used algebra to solve geometry problems and represent points in space with pairs of numbers.
William Playfair and Information Graphics:
Scottish author and scientist William Playfair utilized Cartesian coordinates and analytical geometry to convert statistical data into symbolic graphics.
His 1786 book, "Commercial and Political Atlas," introduced line graphs and bar charts to represent complex information visually.
Playfair also introduced the first pie chart in 1805, demonstrating the vastness of newly acquired territories.
Ladislav Sutnar and Information Design:
Ladislav Sutnar, with his trademark for Sweet’s Catalog Service, exemplified simplicity and harmonious figure-ground relationships in design.
He focused on structuring information logically and consistently, defining informational design as a synthesis of function, flow, and form.
Sutnar rejected traditional margins, used bleeds extensively, and employed shapes, lines, colors, and functional elements to direct the eye through designs seeking information.
Herbert Bayer and Functional Graphics:
Herbert Bayer's work in the World Geo-Graphic Atlas showcased a functional approach to graphics, emphasizing scale, visual articulation of type, and dynamic information patterns.
Anton Stankowski contributed to visual communications by creating visual forms to communicate invisible processes and physical forces, particularly through the use of pictorial language and syntax.
THE ORIGINS OF COMPUTER-AIDED GRAPHIC DESIGN
The Digital Revolution: The 1980s saw the emergence of affordable and powerful hardware and software from companies like Apple, Adobe, and Aldus, leading to a revolution in computer-aided graphic design.
Key Technologies: Apple's Macintosh computer, Adobe's PostScript language, and Aldus' PageMaker software were instrumental in the digital graphic design revolution.
PostScript Programming: PostScript, a programming language designed for visual output, played a crucial role in printing, page layout, font design, and desktop GUI.
Desktop Publishing: The introduction of desktop computers, GUIs, and desktop publishing software like PageMaker revolutionized the way documents were created and prepared for printing.
Mouse and GUI: The invention of the mouse, coupled with GUI systems like Xerox Alto, allowed users to interact with computers more intuitively, leading to the concept of desktop metaphor and desktop publishing.
Typography Advancements: Typeface designers created fonts adaptable to various output devices, and Adobe's multiple-master typefaces allowed for extensive font variations.
Interactive Media and the Web: The emergence of interactive media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web in the 1990s changed the way information was presented and accessed, leading to non-linear structures and personalized information paths.
Web Development: Physicist Tim Berners-Lee's development of HTTP, HTML, and URL laid the foundation for the World Wide Web, and early pioneers like the Discovery Channel created innovative website designs using geometric zoning and imagery.
Digital Vanguard: Graphic design in the 1990s integrated digital processes, media, and technology, leading to complex visual combinations and innovations in information architecture.
HotBot Logo: The HotBot logo exemplified the digital era, representing the first commercial search engine with customized search features, reflecting advancements in technology and design.