Memory Notes

Chapter Overview

  • Studying and Encoding Memories
  • Storing and Retrieving Memories
  • Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory

Studying Memories

  • Persistence of learning over time through:
    • Encoding
    • Storage
    • Retrieval
  • Evidence of memory through:
    • Recalling information
    • Recognizing it
    • Relearning it more easily

Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve

  • More practice leads to less time needed to relearn information, showing retention measures.

Memory Models

  • Information-processing models: Compares human memory to computer operations.
  • Three Processes:
    • Encoding
    • Storage
    • Retrieval
  • Connectionism: Information processed in interconnected neural networks.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

  • Three Stages:
    1. Sensory Memory
    2. Short-Term Memory
    3. Long-Term Memory
  • Short-term memory is now often referred to as Working Memory due to its active processing role.

Types of Memory Processing

  • Explicit Memories: Conscious facts and experiences (effortful processing).
  • Implicit Memories: Automatic processes such as skills and associations.

Sensory Memory

  • Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.
    • Iconic Memory: Visual
    • Echoic Memory: Auditory

Working Memory

  • Active processing of auditory, visual-spatial information, and long-term memory retrieval.
  • Managed by a central executive.

Memory Strategies

  • Chunking: Organizing items into manageable units.
  • Mnemonics: Techniques that use vivid imagery.
  • Spaced Study: Improved recall when study is distributed over time.
  • Testing Effect: Enhanced memory through retrieval practice.

Forgetting

  • Causes:
    • Encoding Failure
    • Storage Decay
    • Retrieval Failure
    • Interference
    • Motivated Forgetting

Memory Construction Errors

  • Misinformation Effect: Memories corrupted by misleading information.
  • Source Amnesia: Misremembering how, when, or where information was learned.

Children’s Eyewitness Recall

  • Suggestive techniques can lead to false memories; neutral questioning improves accuracy.

Improving Memory

  • SQ3R Method:
    • Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
  • Additional strategies:
    • Rehearse repeatedly
    • Make material meaningful
    • Activate retrieval cues
    • Use mnemonic devices
    • Minimize interference
    • Prioritize sleep
    • Self-testing for knowledge assessment