exam prep
Why is anatomy important to a radiologic technologist? It helps with proper positioning, identifying bony landmarks, centering, fewer repeats, reducing patient dose, evaluating images, and identifying pathology.
What is connective tissue? A group of tissues that maintain the form of the body and its organs and provide internal support.
What are the types of connective tissue listed in the lecture? Ligaments, tendons, cartilage, adipose (fat) tissue, and bone.
What is the hardest form of connective tissue? Bone.
What is the matrix of bone? The intercellular substance that forms the structural framework of bone tissue.
What percentage of bone is water? 25%.
What percentage of bone is organic material? 30%.
What is the main organic material in bone? Collagen.
What does collagen do? It provides structure and makes bone flexible.
What percentage of bone is inorganic mineral salts? 45%.
What does calcium do in bone? It makes bone hard.
What is bone remodeling? The ongoing process in which older bone is removed and new bone is formed.
What is osteology? The study of bones.
How many bones are in the human skeleton? 206.
How many bones are in the axial skeleton? 80.
What makes up the axial skeleton? Skull, ribs, spine, and sternum.
How many bones are in the appendicular skeleton? 126.
What makes up the appendicular skeleton? Upper and lower extremities, shoulder, and pelvis.
What are the main functions of the skeletal system? Protection, support/framework, calcium storage, body movement, and hemopoiesis.
What do the ribs protect? The heart and lungs.
Why is calcium stored in bone? It is needed for blood clotting and muscle and nerve function.
What is hemopoiesis? The process of blood cell formation in bone.
Where are blood cells formed? In bone marrow.
What do platelets do? Coagulation/clotting.
What do leukocytes do? Fight infection/pathogens.
What do erythrocytes do? Transport oxygen.
How are bones classified in the lecture? According to shape.
What are the four main classifications of bones? Long, short, flat, and irregular.
What is a long bone? A bone that is longer than it is wide.
What are the main parts listed for a long bone? Head, body, and base.
What structures on long bones are associated with muscle attachment? Tubercles and trochanters.
What cavity do long bones contain? A medullary cavity containing bone marrow.
Examples of long bones? Humerus and femur.
What is a short bone? A bone that is about as wide as it is long.
What is the function of short bones? Support and stability with minimal movement.
Examples of short bones? Carpals and tarsals.
What are flat bones? Bones with a broad, dense surface.
What are the functions of flat bones? Muscle attachment and protection.
Examples of flat bones? Cranium, ribs, sternum, and scapula.
What are irregular bones? Bones with a wide variety of shapes.
What can irregular bones have for muscle attachment or articulation? Processes or surface markings.
Examples of irregular bones? Vertebrae, facial bones, and pelvis.
What is a sesamoid bone? A small, oval-shaped extra bone embedded in certain tendons, often near joints with increased stress.
Are sesamoid bones normally counted as part of the skeletal system? No.
What is the exception to the sesamoid-bone rule? The patella.
Where can sesamoid bones be found according to the lecture? Knee, hand, and foot.
What are Wormian bones? Extra bones that develop within the sutures of the cranium.
What can Wormian bones indicate? Various diseases or syndromes.
What are the three major bone cells? Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts.
What do osteocytes do? They are mature bone cells that maintain bone.
What do osteoblasts do? They are young bone cells that build and repair bone.
What do osteoclasts do? They absorb and remove old bone tissue.
Which bone cells are involved in bone remodeling? Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts.
What maintains bone tissue? An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
What happens in osteoporosis? Osteoclasts exceed osteoblasts.
What is osteopetrosis also called in the lecture? Marble bone.
What happens in osteopetrosis? Osteoblasts exceed osteoclasts.
What are the two types of bone tissue? Compact and cancellous (spongy).
What is compact bone? Heavy and dense bone.
What is another name for compact bone? Cortical bone.
Where is compact bone found? It forms the surface layer of all bones.
What is the main function of compact bone? It makes bones strong.
What is cancellous bone? Lighter and less dense spongy bone.
Where is cancellous bone found? Beneath compact bone at the ends of long bones.
What is the appearance of the open spaces in cancellous bone compared with the lecture? A 'Swiss cheese' appearance.
What is the structural material arranged as a meshwork in cancellous bone? Trabeculae.
What are trabeculae? Needle-like threads formed by the matrix that surround the network of spaces in spongy bone.
Does cancellous bone contain Haversian systems? No.
Why are the spaces in cancellous bone important? They make the bone lighter and store blood cells.
What is diploe? The spongy bone associated with cranial bones.
What is the functional unit of compact bone? The osteon, or Haversian system.
How are Haversian systems arranged? As columns running lengthwise along the axis of long bones.
What do tightly packed Haversian systems look like? A solid mass.
What is the structural and functional unit of compact bone? The Haversian system/osteon.
What is the main purpose of an osteon? To provide blood supply and nutrients to bone cells.
What structures make up an osteon/Haversian system? Haversian canal, lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi, and Volkmann canals.
What is the Haversian canal? The central canal of an osteon.
Which direction does the Haversian canal run? Parallel to the long axis of the bone.
What does the Haversian canal contain? Blood vessels, connective tissue, and nerve fibers.
What are lamellae? Layers of organic and inorganic material covered with collagen arranged in concentric rings around each Haversian canal.
What are lacunae? Small cavities between the lamellae where osteocytes are located.
What are canaliculi? Fine channels/tunnels that interconnect the lacunae.
What is the function of canaliculi? They allow nutrients to flow to all parts of the bone.
What are Volkmann's canals? Small perforating canals that run perpendicular to Haversian canals.
What do Volkmann's canals transport? Blood vessels and nerves.
What do Volkmann's canals connect? Adjacent Haversian canals/osteons.
Diagram: In an osteon, what is the central canal called? Haversian canal (central canal).
Diagram: In an osteon, what are the concentric rings called? Lamellae.
Diagram: In an osteon, where are osteocytes located? In lacunae.
Diagram: What tiny channels connect lacunae? Canaliculi.
Diagram: What canals run perpendicular to Haversian canals? Volkmann's (perforating) canals.
Diagram: What bone tissue is shown as the dense outer portion? Compact/cortical bone.
Diagram: What bone tissue is shown as the porous inner network? Spongy/cancellous bone.
What is the periosteum? A thick layer covering the outer surface of bones.
Where are osteoblasts located in the long-bone layers described? In the periosteum.
What is the periosteum essential for? Bone growth, repair, and nutrition.
What is the endosteum? A thin layer consisting of a single cellular level that lines the medullary surface of long bones.
What is the medullary cavity? The central canal/cavity of a long bone containing bone marrow.
Where are osteoclasts associated with the long-bone layers? The medullary cavity.
What is a nutrient artery? A large artery that enters through the periosteum of the diaphysis and supplies the medullary cavity with nutrients.
What is a nutrient foramen? A small opening through the periosteum connecting the nutrient artery with the medullary cavity.
What is bone marrow? Connective tissue and cells found in medullary cavities/canals.
What does red bone marrow produce? Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Where is red bone marrow located in adults? In flat bones and the cancellous ends of long bones.
What is most embryonic bone marrow? Red bone marrow.
What does yellow bone marrow store? Fat needed for the body's energy level.
Where is yellow bone marrow located according to the lecture? The diaphysis.
What type of marrow makes up the majority of adult bone marrow? Yellow bone marrow.
What is bone formation called? Osteogenesis or ossification.
Where is the primary ossification center? In the diaphysis.
What is the diaphysis? The shaft/central portion of a long bone.
Where are the secondary ossification centers? In the proximal and distal epiphyses.
What is the epiphysis? An end of a long bone.
What is the metaphysis? The portion of a developing long bone between the diaphysis and epiphysis.
What is the metaphysis described as? The growing portion of the bone, proximal and distal.
What is articular cartilage? Smooth, white hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones where two bones meet to form a joint.
What are the functions of articular cartilage? Cushioning, shock absorption, weight distribution, and reducing friction.
What is the epiphyseal plate? A layer of cartilage between the metaphysis and epiphysis.
What does the epiphyseal plate allow? Growth at the metaphysis/lengthening of the bone.
When does growth at the epiphyseal plate cease? When the cartilage is replaced by bone.
What hormone stimulates growth at the epiphyseal plate? Growth hormone.
What do sex hormones such as estrogen do to the epiphyseal plate? They cause the plate to fuse.
Diagram: What is the proximal epiphysis? The upper end of the long bone in the lecture diagram.
Diagram: What is the distal epiphysis? The lower end of the long bone in the lecture diagram.
Diagram: Where is the metaphysis? Between the diaphysis and an epiphysis.
Diagram: What is the medullary cavity? The central cavity within the shaft of the long bone.
Diagram: Where is yellow bone marrow shown? Inside the medullary cavity/diaphysis.
Diagram: Where is red bone marrow shown? In the cancellous/spongy region at the end of the long bone.
Diagram: What covers the outside of the bone? Periosteum.
Diagram: What lines the inside of the medullary cavity? Endosteum.
Diagram: What vessel enters the shaft to supply the bone? Nutrient artery.
Diagram: What covers the ends of the bone at the joint? Articular cartilage.
Diagram: What type of bone is shown inside the epiphysis? Spongy/cancellous bone.
What are the two ways bones are formed/ossified? Endochondral and intramembranous ossification.
What is endochondral ossification? Bone formation by replacing cartilage with bone.
How fast does endochondral ossification occur according to the lecture? Slowly.
What type of cartilage is involved in fetal endochondral development? Hyaline cartilage.
What bones are primarily formed by endochondral ossification? Long bones and the majority of bones in the body.
What is intramembranous ossification? Bone formation through fibrous membranes, replacing sheets of fibrous membrane with bone.
How fast does intramembranous ossification occur according to the lecture? Rapidly.
What types of bones are formed by intramembranous ossification? Flat and irregular bones.
Examples of bones formed by intramembranous ossification? Skull, sternum, clavicle, and facial bones.
What is a joint? The junction between two or more bones, whether or not movement occurs between them.
What is another term for a joint? Articulation.
How are joints named? By the bones that unite.
What prefix is used for joints between like structures? Inter- (for example, intercarpal and interphalangeal).
What is arthrology? The study of joints.
What are the functions of joints? Bind parts of the skeletal system together, make bone growth possible, allow skeletal shape changes during childbirth, and enable movement from skeletal muscle contraction.
What is structural classification of a joint based on? The type of tissue separating the ends of the bones.
What are the three structural joint classifications? Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial.
What is functional classification of a joint based on? Mobility or lack of mobility.
What are the three functional classifications? Synarthrodial, amphiarthrodial, and diarthrodial.
What does synarthrodial mean? Immovable.
What is an example of a synarthrodial joint? Skull sutures.
What does amphiarthrodial mean? Slightly movable.
Examples of amphiarthrodial joints? Intervertebral joints and pubic symphysis.
What does diarthrodial mean? Freely movable.
What structural type is diarthrodial? Synovial.
What is a fibrous joint? A joint that lacks a joint cavity and has bones joined by fibrous connective tissue/ligament.
What are the three types of fibrous joints? Sutures, gomphosis, and syndesmosis.
What is a suture? An immovable fibrous joint found only in the skull.
What holds the bones of a suture together? Strong fibrous connective tissue.
What is gomphosis? The joint between a tooth and the jaw.
What is another name for gomphosis? Peg-and-socket joint.
What holds a tooth in a gomphosis? Periodontal ligaments.
What is unique about gomphosis? It is the only type of joint that does not connect bone to bone.
What is a syndesmosis? A joint where bones are united by a membrane of fibrous tissue/interosseous ligament or membrane.
Example of a syndesmosis? Distal tibiofibular articulation.
What is the movement of a syndesmosis according to the lecture? Minimal to no movement.
What is a cartilaginous joint? A joint without a joint cavity where cartilage connects the bones.
What are the two types of cartilaginous joints? Symphysis and synchondrosis.
What is a symphysis? A cartilaginous joint with a fibrocartilage disc joining the bones.
What type of cartilage is in a symphysis? Fibrocartilage disc, with articular surfaces covered by hyaline cartilage.
Examples of symphysis joints? Pubic symphysis and intervertebral joints.
What is a synchondrosis? A temporary cartilaginous joint in which bones are connected by hyaline cartilage that is later replaced by bone.
What is an example of a synchondrosis? Epiphyseal plate.
What happens to a synchondrosis over time? It fuses as the cartilage is replaced by bone.
What is a synovial joint? A freely movable joint with a joint cavity.
What type of functional classification is synovial? Diarthrodial.
What covers the ends of bones in a synovial joint? Thin articular/hyaline cartilage.
What is present in a synovial joint? A joint cavity and articular capsule.
What lines the synovial joint capsule? Synovial membrane.
What does the synovial membrane produce? Synovial fluid.
What supports articulating bones in synovial joints? Ligaments, tendons, and surrounding muscles.
What does a tendon connect? Bone to muscle.
What does a ligament connect? Bone to bone.
What do ligaments do to a joint? Reinforce and strengthen it and limit side-to-side motion.
What is a bursa? A pad-like sac at points of friction between bone and surrounding soft tissue.
What can a bursa be between? Bone and skin, muscles, ligaments, or tendons.
What does a bursa contain? Synovial fluid.
What does the articular capsule enclose? The synovial joint cavity.
What is the outer part of the articular capsule? Fibrous tissue for support.
What is the inner part of the articular capsule? Synovial membrane that produces fluid.
What are menisci? Two pads of fibrocartilage in the knee joint.
What are the two menisci? Medial and lateral.
What do menisci do? Provide an articular surface, act as cushions/shock absorbers, and distribute weight inside the knee.
How many types of synovial joints are listed? Six.
What are the six synovial joint types? Ball-and-socket, hinge, gliding, pivot, saddle, and condylar.
What is a ball-and-socket joint? A rounded end of one bone fits into an indentation in another bone.
Which joint allows the greatest freedom of motion? Ball-and-socket.
Examples of ball-and-socket joints? Hip and shoulder.
What is a condylar joint? An ellipsoidal joint made of two oval-shaped bones that fit together.
How many directions does a condylar joint permit? Two directions at right angles to one another.
Examples of condylar joints? Wrist/radiocarpal joint and knuckle/metacarpophalangeal joints.
What is a saddle joint? A joint formed when two curved bones meet, with U-shaped/concave surfaces fitting together.
Main example of a saddle joint? First carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
What is a hinge joint? A joint that allows flexion and extension only.
What is another name for a hinge joint? Ginglymus.
Examples of hinge joints? Elbow and knee.
What is a gliding joint? The simplest synovial joint, allowing slight sliding between articular surfaces.
Examples of gliding joints? Intercarpal and intertarsal joints of the wrist and foot.
What is a pivot joint? A joint that allows rotational movement around a single axis.
What is another name for a pivot joint? Trochoidal joint.
Examples of pivot joints? C1-C2 and proximal/distal radioulnar joints.
What movement is associated with a pivot joint? Rotation.
What is the structural-functional pairing for fibrous joints? Fibrous = synarthrodial = immovable.
What is the structural-functional pairing for cartilaginous joints? Cartilaginous = amphiarthrodial = slightly movable.
What is the structural-functional pairing for synovial joints? Synovial = diarthrodial = freely movable.
What are the three fibrous joints to memorize? Suture, gomphosis, syndesmosis.
What are the two cartilaginous joints to memorize? Symphysis and synchondrosis.
What are the six synovial joints to memorize? Gliding, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball-and-socket.
Diagram: What is labeled at the knee in the synovial-joint diagram? Ligament, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, cartilage, and bone are shown.
Diagram: What are the two menisci? Medial meniscus and lateral meniscus.
Diagram: Which meniscus is on the medial side? Medial meniscus.
Diagram: Which meniscus is on the lateral side? Lateral meniscus.
What happens to calcium with aging according to the lecture? More calcium is lost than replaced.
What happens to the bone matrix with aging? It becomes thinner.
What happens to bones with aging? They become more brittle.
What can happen to articular cartilage with aging? It erodes.
What condition is associated with articular cartilage erosion in the lecture? Arthritis.
What becomes more likely with aging? Fractures.
What other joint/bone problem is listed with aging? Bone displacement.
How are fractures classified in the lecture? By extent, integrity, and alignment.
What are the extent classifications for fractures? Complete or incomplete.
What are the integrity classifications for fractures? Closed or open/compound.
What are the alignment classifications for fractures? Displaced or non-displaced.
What is a dislocation? Full displacement from an articulation.
What is a subluxation? A partial/incomplete displacement of a joint.
What is an avulsion fracture? A fracture in which a piece of bone breaks off.
What is a transverse fracture? A fracture with a fracture line across the bone.
What is a comminuted fracture? A fracture in which the bone is broken into multiple pieces.
What is an oblique fracture? A fracture with an angled fracture line.
What is a spiral fracture? A fracture whose line spirals around the shaft of the bone.
What is an impacted fracture? A fracture where parts of a bone are pushed into each other.
What is a buckle fracture? The lecture groups buckle with impacted fractures.
What is a compression fracture? A pathological fracture caused by a bone disorder that weakens bone.
What condition is given as an example associated with compression fracture? Osteoporosis.
Diagram: How can you identify a spiral fracture? The fracture line spirals around the shaft of the bone.
Diagram: How can you identify an avulsion fracture? A piece of bone has been pulled/broken off.
Diagram: How can you identify a transverse fracture? The fracture line runs across the bone.
Diagram: How can you identify a comminuted fracture? The bone is broken into multiple fragments.
Diagram: How can you identify an oblique fracture? The fracture line runs diagonally/at an angle.
Diagram: How can you identify an impacted/buckle fracture? Bone fragments are pushed into each other or the bone buckles.
Exam question: Tissue that connects bone to bone? Ligament.
Exam question: Tissue that connects bone to muscle? Tendon.
Exam question: Name the three types of fibrous joints. Suture, gomphosis, syndesmosis.
Exam question: What is the movement of the radiocarpal/wrist joint? Condylar/ellipsoidal: movement in two directions at right angles to one another.
Exam question: What type of fracture has parts of a bone pushed into each other? Impacted fracture.
Exam question: Which diarthrodial joint allows the greatest freedom of movement? Ball-and-socket.
Exam question: Give an example of a hinge/ginglymus joint. Knee or elbow.
Exam question: Moving a part away from the body is called what? Abduction.
Exam question: What type of fracture results in a piece of bone breaking off? Avulsion fracture.
Exam question: What is the structure/function of the pubic symphysis? It is a cartilaginous/amphiarthrodial joint with a fibrocartilage disc and is slightly movable.
Exam question: Increasing the angle between two bones is called what? Extension.
Exam question: Give an example of a pivot/trochoidal joint. C1-C2 or a radioulnar joint.