key terms PS 101
Operational definition: A statement of the procedures (operations) that is used to define research variables
Case Study: An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to control or manipulate the situation
Survey: A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Correlation: A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe the effect on an outcome (i.e., dependent) variable
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experimental Group: In an experiment, it is the group that is exposed to the treatment, one version of the independent variable
Control Group: In an experiment, it is the group that is not exposed to the treatment. It contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Independent Variable: In an experiment, it is the variable that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable: In an experiment, it is the outcome variable; the variable that may change in response to the independent variable
Theory: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis: A testable prediction often implied by a theory
Dendrites: In a neuron, the small branchlike fingers that gather information into the neuron itself
Soma: In the neuron, the cell body where biological functions of the cell are regulated
Axon: In the neuron, the long, tubular pathway through which the signal passes through the cell
Myelin Sheath: In the neuron, the myelin sheath insulates the axon to allow for quick and efficient signal transmission
Terminal Buttons: In the neuron, these conduct the signal out and to the dendrites of another neuron
Action Potential: A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Resting Potential: The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV (mV=millivolt)--this means that the inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside.
Depolarization: A change within a neuron, during which the cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution, resulting in less negative charge inside the cell.
Repolarization: The change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential has changed the membrane potential to a positive value.
Hyperpolarization: A change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. It is the opposite of a depolarization. It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.
All-or-Nothing Principle: The strength of a response of a neuron is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, the neuron will fire. Essentially, there will either be a full response or there will be no response at all.
Neurotransmitter: Endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron
Medulla: A structure in the brain at the base of the brain stem. It control functions such as heart rate and breathing
Cerebellum: A structure in the brain that sits to the rear of the brain stem. It controls functions such as balance and fine motor skills
Thalamus: A structure in the brain that rests atop the brainstem. The brain’s sensory switchboard, it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Hypothalamus: A structure in the brain sitting below the thalamus. It regulates functions such as eating, drinking, and body temperature, and is linked to reward processing.
Amygdala: This almond-shaped structure in the brain is located in the medial temporal lobe playing a crucial role in emotional processes
Hippocampus: A structure in the brain residing in the medial temporal lobe, it plays a crucial role in the formation of memories
Cerebral Cortex: Covering the exterior of the forebrain, it is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
Gyrus: A ridge or fold between two clefts on the cerebral surface in the brain
Sulcus: Groove or furrow on the surface of the brain
Occipital Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for visual processing
Parietal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for integrating sensory information, movement, and attention
Temporal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for hearing and language
Frontal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for abstract thinking, planning, and decision making
Corpus Callosum: A band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres allowing for messages to travel between them
Plasticity: The brain’s ability to change, particularly during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Dendrites: In a neuron, the small branchlike fingers that gather information into the neuron itself
Soma: In the neuron, the cell body where biological functions of the cell are regulated
Axon: In the neuron, the long, tubular pathway through which the signal passes through the cell
Myelin Sheath: In the neuron, the myelin sheath insulates the axon to allow for quick and efficient signal transmission
Terminal Buttons: In the neuron, these conduct the signal out and to the dendrites of another neuron
Action Potential: A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Resting Potential: The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV (mV=millivolt)--this means that the inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside.
Depolarization: A change within a neuron, during which the cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution, resulting in less negative charge inside the cell.
Repolarization: The change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential has changed the membrane potential to a positive value.
Hyperpolarization: A change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. It is the opposite of a depolarization. It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane potential to the action potential threshold.
All-or-Nothing Principle: The strength of a response of a neuron is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus. If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, the neuron will fire. Essentially, there will either be a full response or there will be no response at all.
Neurotransmitter: Endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron
Medulla: A structure in the brain at the base of the brain stem. It control functions such as heart rate and breathing
Cerebellum: A structure in the brain that sits to the rear of the brain stem. It controls functions such as balance and fine motor skills
Thalamus: A structure in the brain that rests atop the brainstem. The brain’s sensory switchboard, it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Hypothalamus: A structure in the brain sitting below the thalamus. It regulates functions such as eating, drinking, and body temperature, and is linked to reward processing.
Amygdala: This almond-shaped structure in the brain is located in the medial temporal lobe playing a crucial role in emotional processes
Hippocampus: A structure in the brain residing in the medial temporal lobe, it plays a crucial role in the formation of memories
Cerebral Cortex: Covering the exterior of the forebrain, it is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
Gyrus: A ridge or fold between two clefts on the cerebral surface in the brain
Sulcus: Groove or furrow on the surface of the brain
Occipital Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for visual processing
Parietal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for integrating sensory information, movement, and attention
Temporal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for hearing and language
Frontal Lobe: A portion of the cerebral cortex important for abstract thinking, planning, and decision making
Corpus Callosum: A band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres allowing for messages to travel between them
Plasticity: The brain’s ability to change, particularly during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Psychosexual Stages of Development: a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive.
Oral Stage: From birth to 18 months of age, the period when libidinal pleasure centers on the mouth
Anal Stage: From 18 to 36 months of age, the period when libidinal pleasure centers on bowel and bladder elimination
Phallic Stage: From 3 to 6 years of age, the period when libidinal pleasure centers on the genitals
Latency: From 6 years to puberty, a period characterized by a lack of interest in the opposite sex
Genital Stage: From puberty to adulthood, the period characterized by the maturation of sexual interests
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human cognition
Sensorimotor Stage: From birth to 2 years of age, the period in which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Preoperational Stage: From 2 to 7 years of age, the period during which a child learns to use language, but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Theory of Mind: People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
Concrete Operational Stage: From 7 to 11 years of age, the period during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Formal Operational Stage: From 12 years through adulthood, the period during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Schemas: A framework for organizing and interpreting information
Assimilation: Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation: Adapting our current schema(s) to incorporate new information
Preconventional Morality: Characterized by self interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment.
Conventional Morality: Regards conventions and rules as guides for appropriate moral behavior. (directives from parents, teachers and the law are used as guidelines)
Postconventional Morality: Considers rules and laws as relative. Right and wrong are determined by more abstract principles of justice and rights
Stranger Anxiety: The fear of strangers infants commonly display, beginning around 8 months of age
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: A structured play scenario for young children to discern their type of parental attachment
Authoritarian Parenting: Children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.
Authoritative Parenting: Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. These parents expect a great deal of their children, but they provide warmth, feedback, and adequate support.
Permissive Parenting: A parenting style that’s generally nurturing and communicative but with very few demands, rules, or structure.
Laissez-Faire Parenting: An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness, and very little communication.
Biopsychosocial Model: A framework for interpreting pathology that posits mental illness results from an interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors
Diathesis-Stress Model: A framework for interpreting pathology that posits mental illness results from a predispositional vulnerability (i.e., a diathesis) together with stress from life experiences
Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry, that is, apprehensive expectation about events or activities.
Social Anxiety Disorder: Also known as social phobia, is an anxiety disorder characterized by a significant amount of fear in one or more social situations, causing considerable distress and impaired ability to function in at least some parts of daily life.
Panic Disorder: An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent unexpected panic attacks.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: An anxiety disorder where people feel the need to check things repeatedly, perform certain routines repeatedly (called "rituals"), or have certain thoughts repeatedly.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: An anxiety disorder that can develop after a person is exposed to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, or other threats on a person's life.
Specific Phobias: any kind of anxiety disorder that amounts to an unreasonable or irrational fear related to exposure to specific objects or situations
Systematic Desensitization: A form of exposure therapy used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders by exposing a person to the feared object or situation through a stimulus hierarchy
Modeling: A form of therapy in which one observes and subsequently tries to imitate someone who is interacting with a fearful/stressful situation in an adaptive manner
Major Depressive Disorder: a mood disorder characterized by at least two weeks of low mood that is present across most situations
Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder that causes periods of depression and periods of elevated mood
Cognitive Therapy: A therapeutic approach that posits thoughts, feelings and behavior are all connected, and individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses
Electroconvulsive Therapy: A psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from mental disorders
Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand what is real
Encoding: Transforming perceptions into memories
Structural Encoding: Encoding a word based upon its physical characteristics
Phonemic Encoding: Encoding a word based upon its sound
Semantic Encoding: Encoding a word based upon its meaning
Personal Relation: Encoding a word based upon its relevance to you
Storage: Maintaining memories over time
Sensory Memory: During every moment of an organism's life, sensory information is being taken in by sensory receptors and processed by the nervous system. Sensory information is stored in sensory memory just long enough to be transferred to short-term memory
Short-Term Memory: is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
Digit Span: A short-term memory task, the digit span is the longest list of digits that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately after presentation
Chunking: Organizing to-be-recalled items into familiar, more manageable units
Primacy Effect: In list learning the tendency to recall the information at the beginning of the list well; a long-term memory effect
Recency Effect: In list learning, the tendency to recall the information at the end of the list well; a short-term memory effect
Long-Term Memory: A memory store that can hold an unlimited amount of information for an unlimited duration
Semantic Memory: General world knowledge that we have accumulated throughout our lives
Episodic Memory: Memory for autobiographical events that can be explicitly conjured
Retrieval: Moving information from Long-Term Memory to Short-Term Memory
State Dependent Learning: The phenomenon whereby reinstating the encoding context again during retrieval facilitates memory performance
Classical Conditioning: A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Unconditioned Stimulus: In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned Response: In classical conditioning, the naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus: In classical conditioning, the originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response: In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously irrelevant (but now conditioned) stimulus
Extinction: When the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will diminish
Generalization: Following conditioning, the tendency for similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response
Discrimination: Following conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response
Operant Conditioning: A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences.
Positive Reinforcement: Increasing behaviors by presenting pleasant/desirable stimuli
Negative reinforcement: Increasing behaviors by removing aversive stimuli
Fixed Ratio: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses
Variable Ratio: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Positive Punishment: Decreasing behaviors by presenting aversive stimuli
Negative punishment: Decreasing behaviors by removing pleasant/desirable stimuli
Observational Learning: Learning that occurs through observing the behavior and consequences of others
Bottom-up processing: Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information
Top-down processing: Information processing guided by higher level mental processes
Shape Constancy: In perception, the tendency to perceive objects as a constant shape even when physical sensations we receive are variable
Size Constancy: In perception, the tendency to perceive objects as a constant size even when physical sensations we receive are variable
Color Constancy: In perception, the tendency to perceive colors as a constant hue even when physical sensations we receive are variable
Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Difference Threshold: The minimum amount of difference required between two stimuli such that we can detect a difference in intensity 50% of the time
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a consequence on constant stimulation
Wavelength: The distance from one wave peak to the next
Hue: Determined by light’s wavelength, the color we experience such as blue or green
Amplitude: The height from a wave’s peak to its trough
Intensity: Determined by light’s amplitude, the amount of energy in the light wave (i.e., its brightness)
Cornea: A structure in the eye that protects the eye and bends light to provide focus
Pupil: A small adjustable opening in the eye through which light enters
Iris: The colored muscle in the eye that adjusts light intake by constricting or dilating the pupil
Lens: A structure in the eye that focuses incoming light rays into an image on the retina
Retina: A multilayered tissue on the eyeball’s sensitive inner surface on which images are displayed
Fovea: Not a structure in itself, the fovea is the central point of focus on the retina-
Optic Nerve: It is through the optic nerve that visual images are sent to the visual cortex
Rods: Retinal receptors that detect black white and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
Cones: Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina which function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail as well as give rise to color sensation
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory: The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors: one most sensitive to red, one to green and one to blue – which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Opponent-process theory: The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.
Retinal Disparity: A binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images in the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance: the greater the disparity (distance) between the two images, the closer the object
Convergence: A binocular cue for depth perception that uses the angle of convergence when focusing on an object as an indicator of distance
Linear Perspective: A monocular cue for depth perception. Parallel lines appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater the perceived distance
Texture Gradient: A monocular cue for depth perception. As distance increases, textures gradually become denser and less distinct
Interposition: A monocular cue for depth perception. If one object partially blocks our view of an object, we perceive it as closer
Relative size: A monocular cue for depth perception. If we assume to objects are similar in size, the larger ones are perceived as closer
Relative height: A monocular cue for depth perception. We perceive objects lower in our field of vision as closer; those objects higher in our visual field as further away
Light & Shadow: A monocular cue for depth perception. Patterns of light and dark create shadows that can create an impression of a three-dimensional image
Motion Parallax: A monocular depth cue. When we are in motion looking upon stationary objects, the objects that are closer move further across our visual field relative to objects which are further away
Frequency: The distance from one sound wave peak to the next
Pitch: The tone’s experiences highness of lowness
Decibel: a unit of measurement that indicates how loud a sound is
Gestalt: the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies
Figure-Ground: A Gestalt principle. Objects tend to stand out against their background
Proximity: A Gestalt principle. Figures close to one another are grouped together
Similarity: A Gestalt principle. Figures similar to one another are grouped together
Continuity: A Gestalt principle. We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
Closure: A Gestalt principle. We fill in gaps to create a complete whole object
Spearman’s g: A construct developed in psychometric investigations of cognitive abilities and human intelligence. It is a variable that summarizes positive correlations among different cognitive tasks, reflecting the fact that an individual's performance on one type of cognitive task tends to be comparable to that person's performance on other kinds of cognitive tasks
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: A theory differentiating intelligence into nine specific 'modalities', rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: A theory breaking intelligence down into three subcomponents: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
IQ: a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence-
Superego: According to the psychodynamic perspective, the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscious) and for future aspirations
Id: According to the psychodynamic perspective, the id contains a reservoir of unconscious, psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
Ego: According to the psychodynamic perspective, the largely conscious executive part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego and reality
Free association: A practice in psychoanalytic therapy in which a client is asked to freely share thoughts, random words, and anything else that comes to mind, regardless of how coherent or appropriate the thoughts are.
Slips of the Tongue: Also known as Freudian Slips, an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is interpreted as occurring due to the interference of an unconscious subdued wish or internal train of thought
Projective Tests: A personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
Thematic Apperception Test: A projective psychological test
Rorschach Inkblot Test: A projective psychological test
Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies the ego uses reduce anxiety
Denial: Resistance to perceiving what actually occurs.
Reaction Formation: Altering an unacceptable impulse into it’s opposite.
Sublimation: Transforming negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behaviors, or emotions
Five Factor Model of Personality: A model based on common language descriptors of personality
Prisoner’s Dilemma: a paradox in decision analysis in which two individuals acting in their own self-interest pursue a course of action that does not result in the ideal outcome
Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency for observers, when analyzing another person’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Self-Serving Bias: We use internal attributions for ourselves when we do something well but externally attribute when we fail or commit errors
Implicit Association Test: a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory
Deindividuation: Immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values
Group polarization: Occurs when a group’s initial leaning becomes stronger over time
Diffusion of Responsibility: Diminished responsibility for one’s actions because others are acting the same way
Bystander Effect: Phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals do not offer any means of help in an emergency situation to the victim when other people are present.
Social Loafing: The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards a common goal than when individually accountable
Social Facilitation: Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others