Canada and the Twenties

An Uneasy Adjustment

After returning home in early 1919, many Canadian soldiers found there were no stable pensions, limited medical services, and few job opportunities available to them. Labor unions had also reduced wages to support the war effort, and high costs of goods meant families struggled to afford basic needs. Despite companies profiting, wages stayed low, leading to tension and inevitable conflicts between workers and employers.

Workers respond

In response to poor post-war conditions, workers across Canada demanded higher wages, better working conditions, and the right to unionize, sparking widespread strikes. Many strikes were long and bitter, resulting in economic hardships and job losses. In 1919, the western labour conference led to the formation of the “One big Union,” aiming to unify Canadian workers to gain control of industry and government through peaceful means, with the general strike as its main strategy.

Winnipeg General Strike: May 1919

In Winnipeg, metal and building workers went on strike for higher wages, shorter hours, and the right to negotiate as a group. (collective bargaining) The Winnipeg Trades and Labour Council supported a citywide general strike, with 30,000 people—including many non-union members—walking off the job. This brought the city to a standstill, stopping essential services like firefighting, postal work, and transportation. In response, business leaders, politicians, and industrialists formed the Citizens’ Committee of 1,000, believing union leaders were part of a communist plot to overthrow the government

Continued Winnipeg strike

In response to a major strike in Winnipeg, the government took tough actions, such as amending the Immigration Act to deport foreign-born union leaders and appointing special police to arrest strike leaders and fire civic workers. A protest parade turned violent when police and mounted officers attacked the crowds, leading to “Bloody Saturday” with one striker killed, 30 injured, and many arrested. The strike lasted 43 days. Seven leaders were later convicted of communist conspiracy, and some workers were rehired only if they agreed not to join unions. Distrust grew between workers and the business class, though many of the rights workers fought for were eventually achieved.

Regional Protest

Maritime Rights:

In the 1920s, the Maritimes lost influence in Canadian politics due to a small population, fewer parliamentary seats, and the relocation of businesses to Ontario and Quebec. This hurt local industries, such as coal, and led to the emergence of the Maritime Rights Movement, which advocated for policies to support the region.

National Policy:

Farmers in central Canada felt alienated by national policies that favored manufacturers, forcing them to pay high costs for machinery without receiving similar protections. They also sought lower freight and storage fees for their products but were ignored by the major political parties.

United Farmers’ Parties:

In response, farmers in Ontario and the Prairies formed their own political parties, such as the United Farmers’ parties, which gained influence in provincial governments during the 1920s.

The Progressive Party:

The Progressive Party, led by Thomas Crerar, was founded in 1919. It advocated for a new national policy based on free trade and public ownership.

Canadians choose a new government

In the 1921 federal election, Mackenzie King became the new Liberal leader, and his government won a minority, meaning he had to cooperate with opposition members to pass laws. The Progressive Party took advantage of this and successfully persuaded King to pass the Old Age Pension Act in 1927. However, their success was short-lived.

Canada’s growing independence:

After WWI, prime minister Borden took steps to increase Canada’s global influence. PM Mackenzie King pushed for more independence, refusing to support Britain’s military actions in 1922 and insisting Canada should sign international treaties without Britain’s approval in 1923.

The King-Byng Crisis:

•   In 1925, King's Liberal Party lost support after a scandal and faced a potential censure motion. If passed, King would have to resign.

•   King asked Governor General
  Viscount Byng for a new election, but Byng refused, saying the censure vote should happen first.

•   King campaigned on the idea that it was undemocratic for a British-appointed official to override the will of the elected
  PM. He won the election, and from then on, no governor general would go against the wishes of an elected PM.

The Balfour Report:

•   In 1926, Canada and other British dominions wanted formal recognition of their autonomy at the Imperial Conference.

•   The Balfour Committee was formed to examine this request, and its recommendations were passed into law in 1931 through the Statute of Westminster.

•   This established the British Commonwealth, where all countries were equal in status and could make their own laws, with Canada being equal to Britain.

Economy Improves:

• Canada was in a depression at the start of the 1920s, but the economy improved by mid-decade.

. Wheat remained a major export.

•   Growth in natural resources, including pulp and paper, and mining for lead, zinc, silver, and copper boosted the economy.

•   Demand for hydroelectric power increased, leading to the construction of new hydro stations that provided cheaper energy.

U.S. Investment in Canada's Economy:

•   Before WWI, Canada's trade was primarily with Britain. After the war, the U.S. emerged as the new economic leader.

•   U.S. investment in Canada grew in the 1920s, with U.S. companies investing in pulp and paper mills and mines.

•   75% of newsprint produced in Canada was sent to the U.S.

•   U.S. companies preferred setting up branch plants in Canada to avoid Canadian tariffs.

•   The "Big 3" (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler) took control of Canada's automobile industry.

•   U.S. companies owned large portions of Canada’s oil, machinery, chemical, rubber, and electrical industries, benefiting from raw material extraction and processing.

Bootlegging Across the Border:

•   Prohibition in Canada during
  WWI was unpopular and ultimately failed.

•   In 1921, most provincial governments decided to regulate alcohol sales.

•   Prohibition continued in the U.S. until 1933, leading to rum running-smuggling alcohol into the U.S. from Canada.

• Canadians admired the rum runners who evaded U.S. authorities, while the Canadian government turned a blind eye to the situation.

Urbanization:

•   Cities grew as people moved in search of factory work.

•   Farms became mechanized, reducing the need for manual labor.

•   By 1931, urban populations outnumbered rural populations for the first time.

•   Poor working-class people lived in crowded, unsanitary city areas, while wealthier individuals lived in suburbs, accessible by cars and streetcars.

• Smoke from factories polluted the air in urban areas.

1920s Women's Role in Canada:

•   New era with hopes for reforms in health, education, and work conditions for women and children.

•   Only 5 women ran for office in 1921; Agnes Macphail was the only one elected to the House of Commons (HOC) until 1935.

•   Government remained male-dominated; women were primarily seen as housewives and mothers.

•   Labor-saving appliances helped women, but they were expected to maintain cleanliness.

•   Limited job opportunities:
  women worked as secretaries, telephone operators, or sales clerks; few entered professions like law, medicine, or teaching.

The Persons Case: 1929

•   Emily Murphy was appointed a magistrate in Alberta, but her appointment was challenged because women were not considered "persons" under the BNA Act.

•   Supreme Court of Alberta ruled in her favor.

•   Famous Five (including Murphy)
  fought for women to be appointed to the Senate.

•   In 1928, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled women were not
  "persons" under the constitution.

•   The Famous Five appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain, which ruled in their favor on October 18, 1929, declaring women as
  "persons" and eligible for Senate appointments.

Members:

• Emily Murphy - Initiator of the case

• Nellie McClung - Public speaker and suffragist

  • a charismatic orator and writer who helped gather public support for the cause. She was a well-known advocate for women’s suffrage and social reform

• Louise McKinney - Political pioneer and legislator

  • First women elected to a legislature in the British empire. Actively worked to advance women’s political rights and pushed for the recognition of women as persons

• Irene Parlby - Politician and advocate for rural women

  • a Cabinet minister in Alberta and a strong voice for rural women. Her influence as a politic a helped the cause gain legitimacy and political attention

• Henrietta Muir Edward - Legal expert and advocate for women’s rights

  • studied laws affecting women and published legal handbooks to help women understand their rights. Her expertise in legal matters was instrumental in building the case.

Group of Seven

• Lawren Harris (1885-1970) - Founder and Visionary leader

  • Painted bold, stylized landscapes of the Canadian North, emphasizing spiritual and national identity

• A.Y. Jackson - Trailer and unifier

  • Painted diverse Canadian landscapes, promoting the group’s exploration of wilderness regions

  • War artist (1917-1919)

• Franklin Carmichael - Master of watercolours

  • Painted lyrical landscapes and industrial scenes, adding softness to the group’s work

• J.E.H. MacDonald - Mentor and philosopher

  • Focused on spiritual, poetic landscapes, often depicting forests and wildflowers

• Arthur Lismer - Educator

  • Painted bold, lively coastlines and forests

• Fredrick Varley - Emotional Artist

  • Painted dramatic landscapes and portraits

• Frank Johnston - Detailed-focused painter

  • painted light-filled landscapes but later left the group

• Influential artist:

A.J. Casson (joined later:) painted small Ontario towns in a clean, neat style

Tom Thomson (not a member but inspired them) painted wild and bold landscapes before his death in 1917

A New Prosperity

• 1920s Boom: Canada experienced economic growth and participated in the “Roaring Twenties,” but not everyone benefited.

• Lifestyle Changes:

• People bought cars, radios, and went to movies.

• Fads from the U.S. spread quickly in Canada.

• American tourism increased, with 4 million Americans spending $300 million in Canada by 1929 ($75 per person).

• Tourism influenced Canadian fashion:

• Men: straw hats, double-breasted suits, bell-bottom pants, bow ties, slicked hair.

• Women: flapper style with bobbed hair, short hemlines, and flat-chested looks.

• Job Growth: Increased work in railways, hotels, and resorts.

Increased Mobility

• Automobiles in the 1920s:

• Henry Ford’s assembly line made cars affordable (Model T: $300).

• Ford paid workers higher wages but banned unions.

• Canada had only 1,600 km of good roads in 1920, increasing tenfold by the century’s end.

• Most roads connected south to the U.S., delaying the Trans-Canada Highway.

• Canada switched to driving on the right side of the road in 1927.

• Vancouver’s first drive-in restaurant (White Spot) opened in 1928.

• Aviation in the 1920s:

• War veteran pilots became bush pilots, flying supplies to logging camps or helping geologists/prospectors locate mining opportunities.

• Aviation in the 1920s:

• Pilots occasionally flew for emergencies in rural areas or to assist the RCMP.

• Wilfred May:

• Delivered an antitoxin during a diphtheria outbreak in northern Alberta, flying through a snowstorm in an open cockpit and landing on a frozen lake without skis.

• Helped the RCMP during Canada’s greatest manhunt for Albert Johnson, the “Mad Trapper.”

Improved Communications

• Telephones:

• Became a standard household appliance in the 1920s.

• Lines were shared between neighbors, with eavesdropping becoming a form of entertainment.

• Radios:

• Spread news and reduced isolation between distant communities.

• Helped bring popular culture into Canadian homes.

• By the end of the 1920s, around 300,000 Canadians owned radios.

• Small Canadian radio stations struggled to compete with larger U.S. stations.

• Movies vs. Radios:

• Silent films (with subtitles and live music) were common initially.

• 1927: “Talkies” (films with sound) became popular, featuring actors like Laurel and Hardy and the Marx Brothers.

• Early Canadian-made movies declined as they couldn’t compete with Hollywood.

• Canadian talent (actors, writers, technicians) often moved to Hollywood.

A New Canadian Art Movement

• The Group of Seven:

• Formed in the 1920s, introduced a unique Canadian art style.

• Inspired by post-war national confidence and nature.

• Their work was initially criticized as “hot mush painting.”

• Emily Carr:

• Known for painting West Coast forests and Indigenous life.

• Gained recognition after displaying her work at the National Museum in Ottawa.

• Inspired by bright colors and Indigenous imagery.

• Also a writer, winning the Governor General’s Literary Award for Klee Wyck (stories about life and Indigenous people in B.C.).

Sports as Entertainment

• Radio broadcasts brought sports into Canadian homes, including baseball, hockey, boxing, rugby, curling, and golf.

• Notable Canadian athletes:

• Percy Williams: Won two gold medals in sprinting at the 1928 Olympics.

• Ethel “Saskatoon Lily” Catherwood: Won gold in high jump at the Olympics.

• Charles Gorman: Held seven world speed skating records.

• Canadian hockey teams dominated the Olympics, winning gold by large margins.

• Cultural Shift:

• Sports and entertainment reflected the changing social attitudes of the 1920s.

• Victorian values were slowly being relaxed as modern lifestyles emerged.

Aboriginal Nations

Social and Political Challenges:

• Aboriginal contributions during WWI brought little recognition or change in societal views.

• Voting Rights:

• Could not vote in provincial or federal elections.

• Provincial vote: Gained in 1949.

• Federal vote: Gained in 1960.

Living Conditions:

• Poverty on reserves.

• Faced discrimination and hostility in cities when seeking employment.

• Residential schools:

• Traumatizing for many families.

• Some students adapted, but others were alienated from both their communities and Eurocentric society.

Impact on Communities:

• Villages forced to replace traditional leaders with residential school graduates, often dividing communities.

Key Issues in the 1920s:

1. Potlatch Ceremony:

• Cultural event to mark significant events in oral traditions.

• Outlawed in 1884 to assimilate Aboriginals.

• Law strictly enforced after WWI; chiefs arrested and jailed.

2. Land and Title Disputes:

• Many lands in British Columbia were not granted through treaties.

• Government confiscated reserve lands without consent.

• Indian Act Amendment: Allowed transfer of reserve land without Aboriginal consent.

• Allied Tribes of BC petitioned for treaty negotiations, but the government rejected claims, arguing funding for Aboriginal programs was sufficient compensation.

African Canadians

Racism and Discrimination:

• Entry discouraged during prewar immigration boom.

• Those who immigrated faced blatant and brutal discrimination.

Key Events and Policies:

1. Nova Scotia Education Act (1928):

• Allowed racially segregated schools for Black and European children (in place until 1954).

2. Supreme Court of Quebec (1924):

• Upheld racially segregated seating in Montreal theatres.

3. Examples of Tolerance:

• 1924: Edmonton rejected attempts to ban Blacks from public parks and pools.

• 1919: Brotherhood of Railway Workers allowed Black porters as union members, leading in anti-racial discrimination policies.

Ku Klux Klan in Canada:

• Brief and short-lived presence.

• Set up local branches but did not gain significant traction.

Immigration

Post-War Tensions:

• Many Russian and Eastern European immigrants accused of being socialist revolutionaries, with attempts to deport them.

• Government implemented strict immigration policies, favoring British and U.S. applicants.

Economic Perspectives on Immigration:

• Farmers, railway owners, and businesses supported immigration:

• Immigrants worked long hours for low pay and took jobs Canadians refused.

• Labour groups opposed immigration, seeing it as unfair competition.

Asian Immigration Restrictions:

• Chinese Immigration Act (1923): Replaced by the Chinese Exclusion Act to halt Chinese immigration. Repealed in 1947.

• Canada-Japan Agreement (1922): Restricted Japanese immigration to 150 people annually (mainly servants and laborers).

Economic Growth and Policy Changes (1925):

• Economic growth prompted relaxed restrictions to boost the workforce and expand domestic markets.

• Immigrants often ended up in poor conditions, working long hours for low wages in slums or company towns.