French Revolution

FRENCH REVOLUTION

Focus Question

  • What were the causes, the main events, and the results of the French Revolution?

Background to the French Revolution

  • Social structure of the old regime:
    • First Estate: Clergy
    • Second Estate: Nobility
    • Third Estate: Commoners and urban wage earners; middle-class bourgeois
  • Enlightenment Impact:
    • The political ideas of the Enlightenment were attractive to both the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
  • Political Grievances:
    • Roots of the revolution lay in opposition to the old order, leading to drastic actions against the monarchical regime.

FRANCE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION: LOUIS XIV & ABSOLUTISM

Key Concepts

  • Absolutism Defined: A system in which all sovereignty resides with the king who does not share power with anyone. The monarch has absolute power and authority, ruling by divine right.
    • The king is considered above the law and nobility.

HOW TO BUILD AN ABSOLUTIST MONARCHY

  • Nobles’ Role: Nobles must be made inferior to the king. Many were placed in positions (like diplomats, army officers) where they could not create problems.
  • Bureaucracy Development: A huge bureaucracy staffed by middle-class officials, rather than nobles, makes most governmental decisions.
  • Taxation: Taxes must increase to fund the monarchy and its projects; methods included the sale of offices and more.
  • Military Establishment: Creation of a large standing army instead of a transient one.
  • Religious Control: Aim to establish religious uniformity to ensure the monarchy's control.
  • Overall Goal: All these measures focused on enhancing CONTROL over the state.

LOUIS XIV: THE FRONDE OCCURS

Key Events

  • Timeline: Louis XIV becomes King of France in 1643 at the age of 5. The Fronde revolt occurs from 1648 to 1653 due to his minority.
  • Opponents: The Fronde involved mainly The Nobles of the Robe, who sought to challenge royal power during Louis XIV’s childhood.
    • Their demands included:
    • Abolition of intendants (government officials appointed by the king).
    • Rights to approve all royal taxation.
    • Cessation of the royal office sales.
    • Right of habeas corpus (to avoid arbitrary detention).
  • Outcome: The revolt is ultimately defeated by the French army, marking the last significant rebellion before the French Revolution in 1789.

LOUIS XIV: A “PERFECT PICTURE” OF ABSOLUTISM

Strategies and Actions

  • Relocated the court to Versailles, overseeing a massive construction project to showcase power and wealth (covers 2,000 acres, 721,000 sq ft).
  • Invited nobility to live in Versailles to monitor and control them; nobles had to spend lavishly, fostering dependence on the king for loans during social events.
  • Adopted the title “The Sun King,” symbolizing his central role as the source of power and life in France.
  • Implemented strict control over state officials, army, laws, and taxation (e.g., appointed Minister of War, Marquis de Louvois).
  • Revoked Edict of Nantes, impacting religious freedoms and leading to Huguenots leaving France.
  • Engaged in numerous failed wars, straining France’s finances and contributing to peasant unrest.

FRENCH REVOLUTION BACKGROUND

Key Players and Stats

  • Initiation: The revolution began in 1789 under Ruler Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.
  • Population Division into Estates:
    • Clergy (First Estate): 130,000 members; exempt from the taille (chief tax).
    • Nobility (Second Estate): 350,000 members; owned 30% of land; also exempt from the taille.
    • Commoners (Third Estate): 26.5 million members, owning 60% of land, demarcated into:
    • Peasantry: 80% of total population; owned about 40% land, subject to aristocratic privileges and fees.
    • Bourgeoisie: 8% of total population; owned about 20% of land, with the possibility of climbing to nobility.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Multiple Factors

  • Enlightenment Influence: Introduced new thinking, especially critiques of authority, advocating for improvement through action in governance.
  • Discontent with Social Order: Frustration with the rigid estate system, particularly among the middle and lower classes.
  • Economic Hardship: 1787 & 1788 Harvest Failures: Elevated food prices affecting the poor; employment plummeted for peasants, driving many into urban areas, notably Paris.
  • High Tax Burden: Rising taxes met with government extravagance (lavish spending on wars, luxuries). The wealthiest groups (clergy and nobility) were tax-exempt, shifting burdens to the bourgeoisie and peasants.
  • Debt Mismanagement: By this time, half of the collected taxes were spent on servicing national debt accrued from wars, economic inefficiencies, and military campaigns:
    • Wars:
    • War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
    • Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
    • American Revolution (1776-1783)
  • High Interest Rates: Resulting from France's financial issues which labeled them as a riskier investment compared to other nations.
  • Public Dissatisfaction with Royalty: A general decline of respect towards King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, further fueled by scandals like the Diamond Necklace Affair.

DIAMOND NECKLACE AFFAIR

Scandal Outline

  • Rumors Spread: Public discontent around Queen Marie Antoinette's spending and alleged affairs.
  • Key Figures Involved:
    • Cardinal Rohan: Nobleman seeking royal favor.
    • Countess de Lamotte: A schemer deceiving Rohan.
  • The affair revolved around a deceptive scheme to acquire a diamond necklace valued at over $15 million.
  • Events: Countess convinced Rohan that the queen wanted him to purchase the necklace covertly; used forged letters and an impersonator to cement the deception.
  • Trial: Rohan faced accusations that insulted the queen's dignity, turning public perception against the monarchy.
  • Rohan was acquitted, while Lamotte faced punishment, igniting further public disdain for the royal family, negatively impacting their image ahead of the revolution.

CALLING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES (1787)

Events Surrounding Tax Reform

  • Objective: Discuss tax reforms requiring nobles and clergy to share fiscal responsibility.
  • Suggested output led to a call for the Estates-General, not convened since 1614.
  • Individual Estate Demands:
    • Clergy sought to ensure Catholic dominance.
    • Nobility sought to maintain and possibly enhance power.
    • Commoners wanted to represent the majority population.
  • Outcome: Resulting disagreement amongst estates led to a lack of unified purpose.

CALLING OF THE ESTATES-GENERAL (1789)

Context

  • Abbe Sieyes published “What is the Third Estate?” framing their importance as fundamental to France.
  • France faced significant monetary issues, forcing Louis to convene the Estates-General.
  • Representation Stats:
    • First Estate: 300 delegates.
    • Second Estate: 300 delegates.
    • Third Estate: 600 delegates (mostly lawyers).
  • Proposals of the Third Estate:
    • Drafting of a new constitution.
    • Abolition of privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility, contentious within the assembly.

PHASES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Initial Period (1789-1792)

  • The revolution progressed in phases, each with distinct goals and outcomes:
    • National Assembly Established: June 17, 1789; Tennis Court Oath taken on June 20.
    • Storming of the Bastille: July 14, 1789, symbolizing outright defiance against royal authority.
    • The Great Fear: Summer of 1789, peasant revolts against landowners.
    • Women’s March on Versailles: October 5, 1789, focusing on food shortages (particularly bread).

ESTATES-GENERAL MEETINGS (MAY TO JUNE 1789)

Events

  • Third Estate's Actions: Upon facing voting obstacles, they formed the National Assembly and endeavored to draft a constitution, which monarchical forces viewed as illegal.
  • Dissolution Attempts: King Louis XIV tried to dissolve the assembly by force.
  • Bastille Storming: This pivotal moment occurred on July 14 as citizens protested royal decree, signaling a major shift in power dynamics.

FRENCH REVOLUTION CONTINUES

National Assembly Changes

  • As revolts spread, the National Assembly began formalizing reforms, prioritizing:
    • Abolition of nobility privileges.
    • Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen - embodying principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
    • Established a constitutional monarchy with limited royal power.

Louis XVI's Involvement

  • In October 1789, a large group of women, driven by economic hardship, forced Louis to return to Paris.
  • Loss of power for the king, who was kept essentially imprisoned in Paris as his authority diminished.

CONTINUATION OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Key Developments

  • Transition to a more radical phase post-1791 as war was declared on Austria in 1792, leading to initial military failures.
  • The Septemberevents of 1792 saw calls for a national convention to draft a new constitution following public outrage and confusion.
  • The National Convention formally abolished the monarchy and transitioned to a republic.

PHASE TWO OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1792-1794)

Radical Changes

  • Marking the height of revolutionary sentiment, particularly during the Reign of Terror.
  • Execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 for treason; follow-up with Marie Antoinette in October.
  • Established universal male suffrage, the right to work, and the right to rebel against tyranny.

REIGN OF TERROR

Context and Implementation

  • Oversaw by the Committee of Public Safety, which built up the army and suspended the constitution in defense of the revolution.
  • The Law of 22 Prairial expedited executions; estimates of casualties vary between 17,000 and 40,000 by guillotine, condemning many, regardless of loyalty.
  • Robespierre’s eventual overthrow marked a significant endpoint for the revolutionary parties in 1794, with both fear and violence dominating this period.

FRENCH REVOLUTION ODDITIES

Changes to Society

  • Introduced radical reforms, such as:
    • Decimal time (100 seconds in a minute, 10 hours in a day).
    • Redefined angle measurements (400° in a circle).
    • New ten-day work weeks, from which one day was allocated for rest.
    • Adoption of the republican calendar.
    • Introduction of the metric system.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

  • May 5, 1789: Meeting of the Estates-General.
  • June 17, 1789: Formation of the National Assembly.
  • July 14, 1789: Fall of the Bastille.
  • August 26, 1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
  • September 21, 1792: Abolition of the monarchy.
  • January 21, 1793: Execution of Louis XVI.
  • July 28, 1794: Execution of Robespierre.
  • October 1795: Adoption of the Constitution of 1795 and establishment of the Directory.

THE AGE OF NAPOLEON

Focus Questions

  • Which aspects of the French Revolution did Napoleon preserve, and which did he destroy?
  • 1799-1804: Transition to the Consulate led by Napoleon as first consul.
  • Domestic Policies: Reintegration of Catholicism, establishment of the Bank of France, and a centralized government structure.
    • Resulted in gained popularity and stability post-revolution.

NAPOLEON'S RISE AND FALL

Key Events

  • Experienced military successes leading to vast European control (Napoleonic Wars).
  • The Continental System designed to inhibit British trade failed.
  • The disastrous Russian campaign in 1812 weakened his forces drastically.
  • Battle of Leipzig: Marked a turning point against Napoleon as coalition forces overpowered him.
  • End of Reign: Captured in Paris, exiled to Elba, returned seeking power, but ultimately defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena.

RESULTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON

  • Spread of revolutionary ideals across Europe, promoting nationalism and a push towards governance structures similar to the French system.
  • Calls for constitutional reforms initiated across various territories influenced by France post-revolution.