Chapter 13 Social Psychology: Social Influences and Individual Biases

Social Psychology

  • Focus on social influences and their impact on behavior

  • Individual biases to be discussed in chapter 13, part two

Introduction to Social Influences

  • Defined as the impact of others on individual behavior

  • Often unconscious; individuals may not realize the extent of this influence

  • Examples of social influences:

    • Feelings of discomfort

    • Pressure to act in a certain way due to the presence of others

Key Social Influences

  • Conformity

    • A change in behavior or belief in response to real or imagined social pressure

    • Not necessarily direct requests for change

    • Individual changes behavior when realizing their actions differ from others

  • Compliance

    • Following a request with no formal authority behind it

    • Requires individuals to be asked or invited to perform an action they might not otherwise undertake

  • Obedience

    • Following instructions from an authority figure

    • Involves different types of authority (e.g., parents, teachers, bosses)

Norms

  • Defined as the standards of behavior expected in social situations

  • Examples:

    • Personal space during conversations

    • Cultural greetings and interactions

  • Cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings or cultural shock

Case Study: Solomon Asch's Line Experiment

  • Examined conformity through a line judgment task

  • Methodology:

    • All-male participants asked to judge line lengths

    • One true subject among confederates instructed to give incorrect answers

    • Critical trials revealed: subjects conformed to group opinion approximately 37% of the time

  • Findings:

    • Subjects conformed for various reasons:

      • Informational conformity (believed the group must be right)

      • Normative conformity (concerned about social disapproval)

  • Two major variations:

    • Partner present during judgment reduced conformity to 5%

    • Anonymous responses significantly lowered pressure to conform

Factors Affecting Conformity

  • Unanimity: Presence of dissenters lowers conformity

  • Certainty: Ambiguity leads to higher conformity

  • Group Identification: Feeling connected to the group influences behavior

Case Study: Darlene Lautenay's Smoke Study

  • Observed reactions in smoke-filled rooms

  • Individual response patterns:

    • 75% of participants alone reported smoke

    • 10% of participants in groups remained passive due to lack of reaction from peers

Understanding Compliance

  • Compliance occurs when a request is made but the requestor lacks formal authority

  • Influencing Factors:

    • Cost and benefit analysis

    • Social status of requester (importance of perceived authority)

    • Wording of the request affects willingness to comply

  • Example:

    • Study where participants asked to let others use a copy machine with varying reasons for requests

    • Compliance rates varied based on the reason given depending on the request size (small or large)

Obedience and Milgram's Study

  • Obedience: Following orders from authority figures

  • Stanley Milgram's experiment demonstrated the extent of obedience

    • Participants instructed to administer shocks to a confederate

    • 65% of subjects administered the highest shock level

  • Variations in the experiment:

    • Physical contact with the learner lowered obedience rate to 30%

    • Dissenters lowered obedience further

Aggression and Its Types

  • Aggression: Intent to harm someone

  • Types of aggression:

    • Prosocial Aggression: Socially accepted (e.g., capital punishment)

    • Sanctioned Aggression: Acceptable in specific situations (like self-defense)

    • Antisocial Aggression: Seen as negative or harmful acts

Impacts of Advertising

  • Study on effectiveness of warning labels on cigarette packages:

    • Types of warnings examined:

      • Text-only warnings, text with subtle pictures, and text with explicit images

    • Results: Most attention attracted by gross images, yet they backfire on changing attitudes

      • Idea of cognitive dissonance arises; smokers rationalize their choices following exposure to negative consequences

Cognitive Dissonance

  • Defined as discomfort from conflicting beliefs or behaviors

  • Responding to cognitive dissonance:

    • Rationalizing actions to align beliefs with behavior

    • Various mechanisms to relieve discomfort: changing attitudes, justification, distraction, minimizing the importance of conflicting beliefs

Definitions and Theories

  • Social Psychology: Study of interactions, behavioral and mental causes of interactions

  • Attitudes: Composed of affect (emotion), behavior, and cognition

  • Schemas: Sets of related thoughts influencing perceptions of categories of people

    • Stereotypes: Specific to categories of people leading to generalizations

Psychological Effects of Stereotypes

  • Stereotype Threat: Emotional response to being stereotyped

  • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Treatment based on stereotypes influencing subsequent behavior

  • Subtyping: Creating categories to maintain stereotypes

In-group vs. Out-group Biases

  • Favoring one's own group over others and assuming homogeneity in the in-group while perceiving diversity in out-groups

  • Flexibility in categorization based on situation and context

Implicit vs. Explicit Biases

  • Explicit Bias: Conscious beliefs and views of others

  • Implicit Bias: Unconscious beliefs impacting quick decision-making

Conclusion

  • Implicit biases operate without awareness; outcomes of judgments influenced by various situational factors and stereotypes

  • Recognizing biases and working with diverse groups help mitigate their effects