Notes on Theories of Criminality and Crime - Chapter 3

Core principles: criminal behavior is rational; people weigh consequences; fear of punishment deters crime; punishment should fit the crime, not the offender; the justice system must be predictable.
Purpose of punishment: deterrence (not vengeance); emphasis on certainty of punishment over severity.
Historical note: Declined in the 19th century as other findings challenged this theory.

Argues crimes result from rational choices; punishments should account for individual differences.
Led to sentencing reform, criticisms of rehabilitation, greater use of incarceration.
Despite reforms, positivist approaches dominate US criminology.

Focus: the criminal actor and using science to uncover the true causes of crime; implies limited role for free will.
Key claim: criminals differ from noncriminals; science can reveal true causes of crime.
Cesare Lombroso: touted as father of criminology; argued criminals are born or prehuman (born criminals).
Mentions of six theoretical paradigms (broader efforts to explain crime).

View: criminal behavior stems from physical/psychological differences.
Twentieth-century work linked criminality to body types; claims that some criminals are more athletically built.
Early hypotheses linked certain genetic traits (e.g., Y chromosome) to aggression; not definitively proven.
Recent research shows associations between certain traits and criminal activity.
Twin studies (identical vs. fraternal, adoptees) contribute to nature vs nurture debates; some links to parental criminal history observed.
Developmental theories acknowledge trait influence; epigenetics and gene×environment interactions are relevant.

Explain crime as a product of how societies are organized; focus on culture and social class factors.
Two prominent theories: social disorganization theory and strain theory.

Delinquency linked to neighborhoods with high poverty, diversity, and turnover.
Weakens core social institutions; unsupervised youth may learn criminal values.
Delinquency rates attributed to neighborhood context rather than individuals; evidence supports neighborhood effects.

Anomie: normlessness; rules/values unclear or goals difficult to achieve due to social change.
Crime arises when individuals in disadvantaged, dysfunctional, normless settings perceive legitimate paths to success as out of reach.
Expanded view includes vicarious strain and anticipated future strain.

Critics argue that strict focus on disadvantaged groups misses crimes by more affluent individuals.
Propose that any person can become a criminal; three theories: learning, control, and labeling.

People learn criminal behavior through interaction with others; primary groups are key.
Offenders often associate with other offenders; causality between delinquency and delinquent peers is complex.

Assumes people are born with self-interested tendencies and require social controls.
Four elements of social bonds that deter crime: $4$ items: (1) family ties, (2) commitment to norms, (3) involvement in conventional activities, (4) belief in shared values.
General theory of crime posits that weak parental teaching of self-control leads to criminal behavior.
Strong empirical support for the core idea.

Focuses on how acts are labeled as criminal and how labels affect future behavior.
No act is inherently deviant; deviance is defined by social reaction and labeling.
Stigmatization can create a deviant identity; labeled individuals may be more likely to commit future crimes.

Also called radical or critical theory; criminal justice serves the interests of dominant groups.
Laws are designed by those in power to suppress others; affluent people may commit crimes with lower punishment.
Some argue capitalism contributes to criminal behavior via ongoing conflict between winners and losers.

Often considered part of social conflict theories; explain gender differences in crime and rising crime rates.
Emancipation and increased economic opportunities may raise women’s crime propensity.
Arrest rates declined overall due to drops in property crime; arrests for violent crimes involving women rose more, with rape highlighted.

Explains crime patterns by focusing on how offenders locate and select targets within environments.
Two leading theories: routine activity theory and situational crime prevention.

Crime rises when routine activities generate opportunities for offenders.
Original model: three converging elements for crime to occur: $3$ elements: (1) a motivated offender, (2) a suitable target, (3) absence of a capable guardian.
Expanded into the problem analysis triangle: guardians, handlers, managers defend targets and control offenders.

Prevents crime by modifying environments; assumes crime can occur for anyone under favorable conditions.
Crimes occur when easiest to commit, with low risks and high rewards, and where actions are easily justified.
Techniques: increase effort, increase risks, reduce rewards, reduce provocations, remove excuses.

Armed Robbery: motivation is financial gain; offenders may announce offense to commit themselves to it; aim to establish dominance; escape achieved by fleeing or forcing victims to flee.
Burglary: often money-driven; may be for thrills or revenge.
Carjacking: driven by opportunity and situational inducements; often part of a broader illegal market (e.g., chop shops).