AICE International History, 1870 1945 Chapter 1 Empire and the emergence of world powers 1870–1919
Topic 1.1: Why was imperialism a significant force for late 19th century Europe?
Definition: "New Imperialism" (1871-1914) - A new wave of European expansion, focused on Africa & Asia.
I. ECONOMIC MOTIVES
A. Industrial Revolution Created Needs:
Raw Materials: Needed cotton, rubber, copper, tin, gold, diamonds (found in Africa/Asia).
New Markets: Mass-produced goods required new customers abroad.
Investment Opportunities: Wealthy entrepreneurs wanted new places to invest their capital.
B. Competition & "Long Depression" (1873-1896):
Industrialization in Germany & USA increased competition for Britain.
Overproduction led to falling prices, wages, and job losses.
Colonies provided guaranteed markets to protect national economies.
C. Earlier Motives (Pre-19th Century):
Mercantilism: Goal was to gain gold/silver by controlling trade (cheap imports, expensive exports).
Example: The Triangular Slave Trade (Europe → Africa → Americas → Europe).
Decline: Mercantilism faded due to cost of wars and new economic theories (e.g., Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations argued for less government control).
II. POLITICAL & STRATEGIC MOTIVES
A. Nationalism & Prestige:
After 1871, European borders were mostly fixed. Expansion had to look overseas.
Colonies became symbols of national pride, power, and global rank.
Examples:
Britain boasted about its empire and navy ("two-power standard").
France sought to recover from defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) and spread French culture (Mission Civilisatrice).
New nations (Germany, Italy) wanted to prove their strength.
B. Social Policy (Diverting Attention):
Governments used imperialism to unite people across class lines.
Promised that empire would bring wealth for social reforms and steady jobs for the working class, distracting from domestic inequalities.
C. Strategic Control:
Key example: The Suez Canal (opened 1869) shortened the route to India/Asia.
Britain took control of Egypt (1882) to protect this vital trade route, triggering a wider "Scramble for Africa."
III. ENABLING FACTORS (What made "New Imperialism" possible?)
Technology: Steamships, railways, telegraphs, and superior weapons (machine guns, rifles) made conquest and control easier.
Medicine: Quinine helped Europeans survive malaria, allowing them to enter the African interior.
Ideology:
"Civilizing Mission": Belief that Europeans had a duty to spread Christianity, commerce, and "civilization" to "backward" peoples.
"Scientific" Racism: Misuse of Darwin's ideas and racial theories falsely "proved" white superiority, justifying rule over others.
IV. THE "SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA" (c. 1880-1900)
Before 1870: Only 10% of Africa under European control (coastal areas).
By 1900: Over 90% was colonized.
Key Players & Reasons:
Britain: Wanted to protect routes to India (Egypt, South Africa). Sought minerals (gold, diamonds). Key figure: Cecil Rhodes.
France: Focused on West & North-West Africa for raw materials and to restore national prestige.
Belgium: King Leopold II personally claimed the Congo for brutal rubber/ivory exploitation.
Germany: Entered late (post-1871 unification). Wanted its "place in the sun," but got less valuable territories.
Portugal: Expanded old claims (Angola, Mozambique).
The Berlin Conference (1884-85):
European powers met to set rules for colonizing Africa without fighting each other.
Rules included "effective occupation" and abolishing slavery (used as a moral excuse).
Consequence: Ignored African ethnic boundaries, dividing the continent for European convenience.
V. IMPACT ON AFRICA
Claimed Benefits (by Europeans):
Built infrastructure (railways, roads), schools, hospitals, and introduced new crops.
Negative Realities & Exploitation:
Arbitrary Borders: Divided ethnic groups, causing future conflicts.
Economic Exploitation: Raw materials extracted; local industries were prevented from developing.
Forced Labor & Cruelty: Extreme cases like King Leopold's Congo (murder for rubber quotas) and the German genocide of the Herero in Namibia.
Undermined Culture: Imposed European languages, religion, and customs.
Loss of Land & Power: Traditional rulers killed or exiled; people became cheap laborers on their own land.
VI. DOMESTIC SUPPORT & OPPOSITION IN EUROPE
Support (Fuelled by Governments & Media):
Schools: Taught national pride and map geography showing vast empires.
Media: Newspapers, books (e.g., Rudyard Kipling), and magazines glorified empire and portrayed natives as "savages" needing rescue.
Popular Culture: Music halls, advertisements, and postcards celebrated imperialism.
Opposition (A Minority View):
Moral Reasons: Critics like Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness) exposed the brutality and racism.
Economic Reasons: Economist John Hobson argued imperialism was too costly, benefited only the rich, and diverted money from needed social reforms at home.
Political Reasons: Some feared it increased tensions between European powers, risking war.
Topic 1.2: Impact of Imperialism on International Relations
I. INCREASED TENSION BETWEEN EUROPEAN POWERS
Imperial rivalry fueled nationalism, suspicion, and an arms race (especially navies).
Examples of Crises:
Fashoda Incident (1898): Britain vs. France in Sudan. Almost led to war, but was settled by negotiation.
Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911): Germany challenged France's influence in Morocco, supported by Britain. This strengthened the Anglo-French Entente Cordiale (1904).
II. ANGLO-GERMAN RIVALRY INTENSIFIES
Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted Weltpolitik ("world policy") and a "place in the sun."
Naval Arms Race: Germany's rapid naval expansion (post-1906) threatened Britain's sea dominance.
The Kruger Telegram (1896): Kaiser congratulated Boer leaders after a failed British raid, angering Britain and showing German sympathy for its enemies.
III. CONFLICTS WITH CHINA
European Domination: After the Opium Wars, China was forced to grant trade rights and territories ("spheres of influence") to European powers and Japan.
Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901): Chinese nationalist uprising against foreigners. Crushed by an eight-nation alliance (including European powers, USA, Japan), humiliating China.
"Open Door" Policy (1899): USA proposed equal trading rights in China for all foreign powers—negotiated among themselves, not with China.
IV. THE BOER WARS (SOUTH AFRICA) & INTERNATIONAL ISOLATION OF BRITAIN
First Boer War (1880-81): British defeat by Dutch-descendant Boers.
Second Boer War (1899-1902): Costly British victory.
Impact on Britain:
Revealed military weaknesses.
Used controversial "scorched earth" tactics and concentration camps where thousands of Boer civilians died.
Led to international criticism (especially from Germany) and left Britain feeling isolated, pushing it to seek allies (e.g., with France).
V. ATTEMPTS TO MANAGE TENSIONS
Berlin Conference (1884-85): Aimed to partition Africa peacefully among European powers.
"Triple Intervention" (1895): Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to give up Port Arthur in China after it won the Sino-Japanese War. This created lasting Japanese resentment.
Overall: While diplomats worked to avoid direct wars over colonies, imperial rivalry created lasting alliances and enmities that contributed to the road to World War I.
Topic 1.3: Why did Japan emerge as a world power and what was the impact?
I. JAPAN'S RAPID MODERNIZATION (Meiji Restoration, 1868 onward)
A. Before 1850s:
Isolated & Feudal: Japan was closed to foreigners (since 1600s), had a rigid class system (samurai, peasants), and a pre-industrial economy.
Forced Open: Commodore Matthew Perry (USA, 1853-54) used gunboat diplomacy to force Japan to open its ports for trade (fuel, supplies for whaling/shipping).
B. The Meiji Restoration (1868):
Trigger: Fear of being colonized like China. Overthrew the military shogun and restored the Emperor Meiji as head of state.
Motto: "Enrich the country, strengthen the military."
Strategy: Deliberate Westernization to resist Western powers.
Government: Centralized state, new constitution (based on Germany's).
Economy: Built factories, railways, telegraphs, shipyards (e.g., Mitsubishi). Promoted exports (e.g., textiles).
Military: 1/3 of budget spent on army/navy. Modeled on Western powers. Compulsory military service. Built modern warships.
Society: State education taught patriotism, obedience, and revived Shinto religion to glorify the emperor.
II. JAPAN BECOMES AN IMPERIAL POWER
A. First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95):
Cause: Conflict over control of Korea (resource-rich, strategic).
Result: Japan crushed China. Treaty of Shimonoseki gave Japan Taiwan, Port Arthur, and influence in Korea.
Impact: Shocked Europe. Showed Japan's new military strength.
B. The "Triple Intervention" (1895):
What: Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to give back Port Arthur to China.
Why: Russia wanted the warm-water port for itself.
Impact: Japan felt humiliated and vowed revenge, especially against Russia. Began massive naval build-up.
C. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902):
Why: Both Britain and Japan saw Russia as a threat to their interests in China/Korea.
Terms: Promised neutrality if the other fought one enemy; military aid if they fought two.
Significance: First time a European power treated Japan as an equal. Established Japan as a recognized world power.
D. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05):
Cause: Rivalry over Manchuria and Korea. Russia refused to negotiate.
Key Events:
Surprise Attack: Japan attacked Russian fleet at Port Arthur (Feb 1904).
Land Victory: Japanese army captured Port Arthur after a siege.
Naval Victory: Battle of Tsushima Strait (May 1905): Japanese navy destroyed the Russian Baltic Fleet.
Treaty of Portsmouth (1905): Mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.
Japan got: Russian lease on Port Arthur, control of S. Manchuria railway, recognized dominance in Korea.
Global Impact: First time an Asian power defeated a major European power in modern war. Huge boost to Japanese prestige and nationalism.
III. JAPAN IN WWI & GLOBAL POSITION BY 1918
Entered WWI (1914): Honored the alliance with Britain, declared war on Germany.
Actions & Gains:
Seized German territories in China (Shandong) and Pacific islands.
Economy boomed: Supplied goods to Allies, expanded industry (steel, chemicals), merchant fleet doubled.
Twenty-One Demands (1915): Attempted to make China a Japanese protectorate. Forced China to agree after an ultimatum. Angered China and worried Western powers.
By 1918: Japan was a major imperial power in Asia, with a strong economy and navy, challenging Western interests in China.
Topic 1.4: Why did the USA emerge as a world power and what was the impact?
I. FROM ISOLATIONISM TO EXPANSION
A. 19th Century: Continental Expansion ("Manifest Destiny"):
Belief: USA was destined to expand across North America, spreading democracy and Christianity.
Methods: Purchase (Louisiana, Alaska), war (Mexico, 1846-48), negotiation (Britain for Oregon).
Result: By 1890, the frontier was "closed" (no more unsettled land).
B. Reasons for Looking Overseas (Late 1800s):
Economic Power: Industrial giant (leading in steel, coal, cotton). Needed new markets for its goods and new investments for its capital.
Closed Frontier: No more "safety valve" for expansion and opportunity at home.
Ideology: Belief in Anglo-Saxon racial/cultural superiority and a duty to "civilize."
Strategic Thought: Influence of Alfred T. Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) – argued a strong navy was key to world power.
Competition: European empires were carving up Africa/Asia, shutting the USA out of markets.
II. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898) – USA BECOMES AN IMPERIAL POWER
A. Causes:
Cuban Revolt: Cubans fighting Spain for independence. American businesses had big investments in Cuba.
"Yellow Journalism": U.S. newspapers sensationalized Spanish atrocities, building public anger.
The USS Maine: American battleship exploded in Havana harbor (Feb 1898). Blamed on Spain (likely an accident).
Agitators: Asst. Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt pushed for war to test/expand U.S. power.
B. The "Splendid Little War" & Results:
Quick U.S. victory over Spain (naval battles at Manila Bay & Santiago).
Treaty of Paris (1898): USA gained:
Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines (bought for $20 million).
Cuba became a U.S. "protectorate" (Platt Amendment gave USA right to intervene).
C. Impact & Further Expansion:
Acquired Empire: USA was now a colonial power.
Annexed Hawaii (1898): Strategic mid-Pacific base.
Built the Panama Canal (1904-14): Ensured naval/military mobility between oceans. Engineered a Panamanian revolt against Colombia to get the land.
Roosevelt Corollary (1904): Added to the Monroe Doctrine. Said the USA had the "international police power" to intervene in Latin America to keep order (and protect U.S. business interests).
Big Navy: Roosevelt built a "Great White Fleet" to project power globally.
III. USA IN WORLD WAR I & EMERGENCE AS TOP WORLD POWER
A. Neutrality to Intervention (1914-1917):
Initial Neutrality: Viewed as a European war. Made money selling supplies to Allies.
Reasons for Entering War (1917):
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: German U-boats sinking U.S. ships (e.g., Lusitania, 1915) threatening trade and lives.
The Zimmerman Telegram (1917): Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico against the USA. This threatened U.S. homeland security.
B. Impact on the War & World:
Fresh Troops & Supplies: U.S. entry boosted Allied morale and provided crucial manpower/materials in 1918.
Economic Colossus: USA became the world's leading creditor nation. European powers owed it massive war debts.
Global Leadership: President Woodrow Wilson tried to shape the post-war peace with his Fourteen Points (e.g., self-determination, free trade, League of Nations).
By 1918: The USA was the world's leading financial and industrial power, shifting the global center of power away from Europe.