United States Foreign Affairs: 1800 - 1823

The Global Context of the Young United States in 1800

• Initial Military and Internal Status: At the dawn of the 19th century, the United States was a young nation grappling with significant internal conflicts. It faced the rise of political parties that threatened to divide the public and survived a controversial presidential election in $1800$ that brought the nation to the brink of crisis. However, the strength of the Constitution was proven through a peaceful transition of power from one party to another.

• The Foreign Landscape: Beyond its borders, the U.S. had to navigate complex diplomacy. Following the advice of George Washington, the nation sought to avoid foreign powers that might attempt to strip it of its recently acquired freedom.

• Naval Conflict (February 9, 1799): An early example of foreign engagement occurred when the U.S.S. Constellation engaged the French frigate L'Insurgente off Nevis in the Caribbean.

The Foundation of American Foreign Policy under George Washington

• Militarily Weak Start: In $1789$, when Washington became the first president, the military was weak. The Continental Army from the Revolution had disbanded because there was no money to pay soldiers.

• Distrust of Standing Armies: Many Americans feared a large standing army, believing it could be used to infringe upon their liberty. Consequently, the nation preferred state militias that were only called into service during immediate threats.

• Surrounding Threats:

  • North: Great Britain controlled Canada and maintained forts on the frontier in the Ohio Valley.

  • West and South: Spain controlled these vast territories.

  • France: The French Revolution (beginning in $1789$) eventually threatened to pull the U.S. into a global conflict.

• The Dilemma of the French Alliance: In $1793$, when France declared war on Great Britain, they called on the U.S. to honor the treaty signed during the American Revolution. Washington, knowing the nation was unprepared for war, established a policy of neutrality, refusing to aid either side.

• Isolationism: Washington expanded this to a policy of isolationism, refusing to sign treaties with foreign nations to avoid entanglements. He urged the continuation of this policy in his Farewell Address.

Political Divisions and the Jay Treaty

• Democratic-Republicans: Primarily located in the West and South; composed of farmers and newly arrived immigrants.

• Federalists: Located in the North and East; supported by business, factory, and ship owners.

• The Jay Treaty (1794): To resolve tensions, the U.S. signed the Jay Treaty with Great Britain. In this agreement:

  • Great Britain agreed to remove its forces from the western frontier.

  • The United States agreed not to aid France in its war against England.

• French Outrage: France viewed the Jay Treaty as a violation of their $1778$ treaty with the U.S. In retaliation, France began attacking U.S. ships in July $1796$. By the following year, French warships had seized $316$ American merchant ships.

The Presidency of John Adams and the XYZ Affair

• Diplomatic Mission: Adams sent a team of negotiators (an envoy) to France to meet with Foreign Minister Charles Maurice Talleyrand.

• The XYZ Affair: Talleyrand refused to meet and instead sent three secret agents (X, Y, and Z) to demand a tribute (bribe) from the American envoy.

• U.S. Reaction: Adams and the public were outraged. The popular slogan became: ‘Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute.’

• Defense Building: Congress approved funding for an army of $10,000$ soldiers and the construction of $12$ warships.

• Peace Efforts: Despite his rising popularity, Adams sought peace to protect the country. In February $1799$, he sent another envoy. By their arrival, Napoleon Bonaparte had seized control and declared himself Emperor of France.

• The Compromise of 1800:

  • France ended the alliance and released the U.S. from war-aid obligations.

  • The U.S. forgave France the debt for the seized ships.

• Political Consequences: Federalists were stunned by the debt forgiveness. This loss of party support led to Adams' defeat in $1800$ by Thomas Jefferson.

Thomas Jefferson: The Barbary Pirates and the Embargo

• Renewed Piracy: Despite Adams’ peace, Britain and France continued seizing U.S. ships. The British practiced impressment, kidnapping sailors and forcing them into the British Navy.

• The Barbary States: Kingdoms in North Africa (Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco) preyed on merchant ships in the Mediterranean. Jefferson discovered Adams had been paying secret tribute to the King of Tripoli.

• War with Tripoli: Jefferson refused further payments. When the Barbary states declared war, Jefferson sent the American fleet to the Barbary Coast. They bombarded Tripoli and established a blockade that eventually forced the kingdoms to end their piracy.

• Economic Conflict (The Embargo Act of 1807): Jefferson attempted to punish Britain and France by cutting off trade.

  • Goal: Use raw materials as leverage to stop ship seizures.

  • Result: It failed disastrously. British and French trade continued elsewhere, but U.S. merchants in Boston and New York suffered greatly. The embargo damaged the economy and fueled political hostility toward Jefferson before being eventually removed.

James Madison and the War of 1812

• Ongoing Tensions: When Madison took office in $1809$, piracy and impressment persisted. On the frontier, the British were suspected of arming the Shawnee to raid settlements.

• The Shawnee Resistance: A chief named Tecumseh (Ta-com-say) and his brother organized the Shawnee for war.

• Battle of Tippecanoe (November 1811): The Indiana militia defeated the Shawnee. Afterward, they found British arms on the battlefield, proving British betrayal.

• A Divided Nation:

  • North and East Support: Opposed war; wanted to maintain trade with London.

  • South and West Support: Favored war to secure the frontier.

• War of 1812 Highlights:

  • Congress declared war in July $1812$.

  • William Henry Harrison won a major victory at the Battle of Thames (near Ontario), where Tecumseh was killed in December $1813$.

  • The war ended with a sense of national pride and unity, the creation of a new national anthem, and the rise of General Andrew Jackson as a national hero.

The Monroe Doctrine and Latin American Independence

• Post-War Standing: The second victory over Britain elevated American international esteem. By $1816$, James Monroe was elected, and the U.S. military power was respected by Europe.

• Latin American Revolutions:

  • Mexico: Father Guadalupe Hidalgo led a peasant revolt; Mexico gained independence in $1820$.

  • South America: Simon Bolivar led revolts in Venezuela, Quito, Bolivia, and Peru.

• The Monroe Doctrine (1823): Monroe warned European powers against further meddling in the Americas. He declared that any attempt to assert political control in North, South, or Central America would be viewed as an act of war.

• Final Impact: While Europe was offended and viewed the doctrine as arrogant, they lacked the power to stop it. The U.S. successfully established itself as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere, returning to a policy of isolationism while maintaining its regional defense.

Foreign Policies of the First Seven Presidents

1. George Washington (1789-1797)

   • Neutrality and Isolationism: Washington established a foreign policy focused on neutrality, notably refusing to engage in conflicts between Britain and France. He believed the U.S. should avoid entangling alliances.

   • Farewell Address: He urged future leaders to remain neutral and avoid foreign alliances, laying the groundwork for American foreign policy.

2. John Adams (1797-1801)

   • XYZ Affair: Adams faced challenges with France, which demanded tribute from American envoys. The U.S. refusal to comply led to public outrage and military buildup, known as the Quasi-War with France.

   • Peace Efforts: Despite nationalist pressure, Adams sought peace, culminating in the Convention of 1800, where France ended its alliance with the U.S. and released it from war obligations.

3. Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)

   • Barbary Wars: Jefferson dealt with piracy from North African states. He refused to pay tribute and instead sent the Navy to end the piracy.

   • Embargo Act of 1807: Attempted to halt trade with Britain and France. The policy backfired, damaging the U.S. economy and causing political backlash.

4. James Madison (1809-1817)

   • War of 1812: Madison declared war due to ongoing issues with Britain, including impressment of sailors and support for Native American raids. The war was between the U.S. and Britain and marked a pivotal turn in U.S. foreign relations.

5. James Monroe (1817-1825)

   • Monroe Doctrine (1823): Monroe asserted that the Americas were off-limits for future European colonization, declaring any intervention as a threat to U.S. peace and security. This doctrine was pivotal in defining U.S. foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere.

6. John Quincy Adams (1825-1829)

   • Expansionism: Adams supported American expansionist policy, advocating for colonization and territorial growth, which foreshadowed future conflicts with Native Americans and foreign powers.

   • Diplomacy with Britain: He also worked on improving U.S.-British relations, including the Treaty of 1818, which established boundaries and resolutions over fishing rights.

7. Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)

   • Indian Removal: Jackson pursued Indian removal policies, impacting foreign relations by reshaping territorial borders in the U.S., moving Native Americans westward.

   • Vigilant Foreign Policy: He adopted a more aggressive stance toward foreign relations, particularly concerning the British and their influence in the Americas, but maintained decisions that leaned towards American sovereignty.