The Puritan Revolution Chp. 18

The Puritan Revolution

Westminster Confession

The Westminster Confession outlines the duties of civil magistrates to ensure unity and peace within the church. This includes maintaining the purity of God's truth, suppressing blasphemies and heresies, reforming worship and discipline according to biblical principles, and ensuring the proper administration of God's ordinances. The confession emphasizes the role of the civil authority in upholding religious standards and practices.

Reformation in England

During the Reformation, Queen Elizabeth I adopted a moderate position, balancing the demands of conservative factions, who wished to retain traditional practices, and Calvinist Protestants, who sought comprehensive reforms based on biblical norms. This middle ground aimed to maintain stability amid differing religious views.

Queen Elizabeth's intervention was crucial in managing the tensions between conservative and Calvinist factions within the Church of England. Her policies aimed to maintain a balance, preventing either group from gaining dominance and thus preserving the unity of the church and the stability of the realm.

James I

Upon Elizabeth's death in 1603 without an heir, James, the son of Mary Stuart and King of Scotland, became her successor, marking the beginning of the Stuart dynasty in England. The transition was generally smooth, but it brought a Scottish king to the English throne.

James I of England (James VI of Scotland) faced challenges in governing England due to his status as a perceived foreigner. His efforts to unite Scotland and England encountered resistance from the English populace. Furthermore, the growth of a powerful merchant class, fueled by Elizabeth's successful trade policies, led to opposition against James's pro-nobility stance.

James I also clashed with Protestants advocating for further reformation of the church. Scottish Calvinists, who desired similar changes in England, added to the religious tensions during his reign. These tensions set the stage for future conflicts over religion and governance.

Puritans

Radical Protestants, known as Puritans, aimed to purify the Church of England by returning to what they believed was biblical religion. They opposed traditional elements of worship, such as the use of the cross, priestly garments, and altars for communion, viewing them as remnants of Roman Catholicism. The placement of the communion table was particularly contentious, as it symbolized differing interpretations of communion.

The Puritans emphasized a disciplined life guided by scripture, shunning luxury and ostentation. They regarded the Church of England's worship as overly elaborate and advocated for strict observance of the Lord's Day through religious activities and charity. They rejected the Book of Common Prayer and written prayers, believing they fostered insincerity, and viewed the Lord’s Prayer as a model for prayer rather than a mere recital.

While not opposed to moderate alcohol consumption, the Puritans strongly condemned drunkenness, especially among ministers. They also denounced activities they considered licentious, including the theater, due to its perceived immorality and the perceived duplicity of acting. Their moral code was strict and aimed at reforming society according to their religious beliefs.

Opposition to Bishops

A significant number of Puritans opposed the institution of bishops, arguing that the episcopacy lacked biblical support. They believed that the church's structure should be based on scripture, not only in matters of doctrine but also in organization and governance. Some Puritans argued that the Bible permitted various forms of church government and that episcopacy was not divinely mandated. Others maintained that the New Testament church was governed by elders (presbyters) and that a biblically based church should follow this model.

Among the Puritans were groups known as independents, who advocated for the autonomy of each congregation. The Baptists emerged from these independent groups. John Smith (1554-1612), an Anglican priest, founded an independent congregation and fled to Amsterdam. He rejected the use of Bible translations in worship, preferring to read and translate from Hebrew and Greek during services. Influenced by Mennonites, he adopted their pacifism and refusal to take oaths. Smith eventually concluded that infant baptism was invalid, leading him to baptize himself and his followers, earning him the moniker "self baptizer.”

Thomas Helwys, a lawyer who financed Smith's congregation's relocation to Amsterdam, disagreed with Smith on the issues of pacifism and oath-taking. Helwys and his followers returned to England and established the first Baptist church in 1611. Over time, Baptists diverged on Calvinist and Arminian theological views, resulting in the distinction between General Baptists (Arminian) and Particular Baptists (Calvinist).

Official Church

The official Church of England sought to maintain stability by retaining elements of tradition that did not contradict its theological principles. However, the emphasis on traditional worship practices led some within the church to abandon Calvinist theology. Theologians in the Church of England valued the aesthetic aspects of traditional worship, often with little regard for theological or biblical considerations. This trend raised concerns among Puritans, who feared a potential return to Roman Catholicism.

Conflicts Under James

Upon inheriting Elizabeth's crown, James faced a resurgence of long-standing conflicts. Puritans harbored distrust towards James due to his mother, Mary Stuart. Despite initial hopes, James did not favor Catholics. He aimed to establish an absolute monarchy akin to that of France. Having experienced limitations on his authority in Scotland due to Presbyterian influences, he sought to strengthen the episcopacy in England to consolidate his power, famously stating, "Without bishops, there is no king."

James's personality and behavior also contributed to his unpopularity. His homosexuality and the preferential treatment he showed to his favorites sparked resentment and discontent. While financially honest, his lavish spending on trivial matters drew criticism, and his generous bestowal of titles angered those who had served the crown for extended periods.

In terms of religious policy, James largely continued Elizabeth's approach, systematically suppressing Anabaptists due to their egalitarian principles. Catholics were viewed with suspicion as potential traitors loyal to the Pope. However, James expressed willingness to tolerate Catholics if the Pope recognized his right to the throne and condemned regicide. Presbyterians were generally tolerated, and James granted them minor concessions, but he remained steadfast in his support for the episcopacy, viewing bishops as essential allies of the crown.

Growing Tensions

The tension between church prelates and Puritans intensified during James's reign. In 1604, Richard Bancroft, the Archbishop of Canterbury, asserted the divine origin of the episcopal hierarchy, dismissing Protestant churches lacking bishops. This declaration heightened Puritan fears of a resurgence of Catholicism. Bancroft also implemented canons (ecclesiastical laws) targeting Puritans.

When Parliament convened to approve taxes, Puritans in the House of Commons appealed to the king against Bancroft's canons. In response, James convened the Hampton Court Conference. However, when a Puritan suggested the establishment of a presbytery, James vehemently opposed it. The only notable outcome of the conference was the commissioning of the King James Version of the Bible in 1611, which greatly influenced English literature due to its high-quality prose.

Growing animosity developed between the House of Commons and conservative bishops. The bishops asserted that their authority derived from divine right. In 1606, new anti-Puritan canons were approved, prompting Parliament to attack the bishops, setting the stage for the civil war that would erupt during the next reign.

Gunpowder Plot

The Gunpowder Plot was uncovered in late 1605. Ostensibly intended to raise funds, a repressive law was enacted against Catholics. A group of Catholics conspired to blow up Parliament while the king was in attendance, but the plot was discovered, and the conspirators were executed. In response, James imposed additional fines and confiscations on Catholics, leading to the imprisonment of thousands.

Attempts to Rule Without Parliament

James endeavored to govern without Parliament but required their approval for taxation. In 1614, he convened a meeting of Parliament but dissolved it due to its obstinacy. Consequently, he resorted to borrowing from bishops and nobles. As the Thirty Years' War unfolded, James refrained from supporting his son-in-law Frederick, the deposed elector of the Palatine and King of Bohemia, citing financial constraints. In 1621, he reconvened Parliament in hopes of securing new taxes to aid German Protestants. However, plans for his son to marry a Spanish princess provoked the ire of Puritans. While Parliament approved minor taxes, it also presented grievances, leading to the assembly's dissolution and the arrest of its leaders.

The proposed marriage plans were abandoned. In 1624, James reconvened Parliament but failed to obtain the necessary funds. He died and was succeeded by his son Charles.

Charles I

Like his father, Charles I aspired to establish a centralized and powerful monarchy, leading to conflicts with Parliament. Puritans viewed Charles with suspicion due to his marriage to a sister of King Louis XIII of France. The marriage agreement included concessions to English Catholics, fueling Puritan complaints of apostasy within the royal household.

Charles inherited his father's contentious relationship with Parliament, which reached a critical point during the trial of Richard Montagu, a proponent of the divine right of kings. Parliament condemned Montagu, but Charles intervened by appointing him as his personal chaplain. Subsequently, the Commons initiated impeachment proceedings against the Duke of Buckingham on charges of high treason, prompting the King to dissolve Parliament.

Faced with the need for funds that only Parliament could authorize, Charles implemented stricter measures. He delegated the Archbishop of Canterbury's powers to William Laud, a staunch opponent of Puritanism. Charles repeatedly convened and dissolved Parliament, elevating supporters in the Commons to the peerage. In 1629, Charles resolved to rule without Parliament. While this period saw economic prosperity for the upper classes, the cost of goods rose more rapidly than wages, resulting in widespread suffering among the populace as the aristocracy amassed wealth. The political order engendered grievances that the King was unable to address.

Popular Discontent

The king and bishops were perceived as adversaries of the people, particularly in industrial areas. Puritans garnered support by denouncing the extravagance of the crown and bishops. In 1633, William Laud ascended to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury. He advocated for religious uniformity and implemented harsh measures against Puritans. Charles granted Laud authority in Scotland to enforce the Anglican liturgy, triggering riots and rebellion. The Scottish general assembly sought to curtail the power of bishops, but the King's representatives dissolved it. Subsequently, the assembly reorganized the Church of Scotland along Presbyterian lines.

War became inevitable. Lacking sufficient troops or funds, the King sought support from his Irish subjects. This situation drew Scottish Calvinists and English Puritans closer together. In 1640, Charles convened a meeting of Parliament to secure funds for war against the Scottish rebels. However, sympathies within the Commons lay with his adversaries, leading Charles to dissolve the assembly and convene the Long Parliament.

The Long Parliament

The years preceding the Long Parliament were marked by economic hardships affecting the bourgeoisie. Those elected to the House of Commons voiced discontent with the king's policies, whether for religious or economic reasons. Many nobles expressed willingness to curb the king's authority. The new Parliament proved intractable, aware that its power stemmed from the threat posed by the rebels. Initially, it took action against those who had sought to suppress Puritanism, freeing victims and compensating them for damages. Lord Strafford, a loyal minister of the king, was condemned to death and executed.

In May 1641, Parliament passed a law ensuring it could not be dissolved without its consent. Despite depriving him of an important prerogative, the King did not oppose it. It came to light that the King had been negotiating with the Scottish invaders. Furthermore, the queen was accused of instigating a Catholic rebellion in Ireland to discredit Parliament. These events led radical Protestants to align with those seeking to limit the power of the crown.

Bishops, as members of the House of Lords, served as Charles's primary allies in Parliament. The House of Commons initiated proceedings against some bishops, but riots prevented them from attending the assembly. The House of Commons announced plans to prosecute the queen for her involvement in the events in Ireland. Consequently, many in the House of Lords became convinced of the need to restore order. While time was on the King's side, he accused the leaders of the Commons before the House of Lords, but the Lords rejected the accusation. The King then ordered the arrest of the accused, but Parliament refused to surrender them. As a result, the King lost control of his capital and retreated to his palaces.

In London, John Pym effectively governed in place of the King. The Commons proposed legislation to exclude bishops from the House of Lords, which the higher chamber approved, leading to the expulsion of the bishops. Those opposed to Puritanism were progressively excluded from Parliament. Parliament mandated the recruitment of a militia. The King gathered troops loyal to him and prepared for battle against Parliament's militia, setting the stage for civil war.

Civil War

Both factions commenced building up their respective armies. Charles found his most substantial support among the nobility, while Parliament found its support among those who had suffered most in recent times. The majority of Parliament's army consisted of members of the lower classes, merchants, and noblemen. The King's strength lay in his cavalry, whereas Parliament's strength was in its infantry and navy. Initially, minor skirmishes occurred. Parliament sought assistance from the Scots, while Charles sought support from Catholics in Ireland.

Puritan factions moved closer together. Parliament implemented measures leaning towards Presbyterianism to entice the Scots, and the episcopacy was abolished. Parliament convened the Westminster Assembly to advise it on religious matters. The Westminster Assembly comprised 121 ministers and 30 laymen appointed by Parliament, including eight representatives from Scotland. The assembly endorsed Presbyterianism and recommended that Parliament adopt it for the Church of England. Parliament joined with the Scots in a solemn league and covenant, committing them to Presbyterianism.

In 1644, these measures were enacted, and in the following year, William Laud was executed by order of Parliament. Oliver Cromwell rose to prominence, convinced that every decision should be rooted in the will of God. He assembled a small corps of cavalry whose members charged into battle singing psalms, firmly believing they were waging a holy war. The army of Parliament fought with similar conviction and decisively defeated the King's army at the Battle of Nasby, marking the beginning of the end for the king.

The rebels seized control of the King's camp, uncovering evidence that he had been soliciting foreign Catholic troops to invade England. Charles negotiated with the Scots, but they apprehended him and turned him over to Parliament.

Parliament enacted a series of Puritan measures, including mandating that the Lord's Day be reserved for religious observances and prohibiting frivolous pastimes. Despite their shared opposition to the king and his bishops, Puritans found themselves divided among themselves. While Parliament supported the Presbyterian form of government, which allowed for a national church without bishops, the Independents constituted the majority in the army.

The Independents believed that a national church would deprive them of their freedom to obey the Bible. Tensions arose between Parliament and its army. In 1646, Parliament attempted to disband the army. However, the army asserted that, because it encompassed a broader representation of the people than Parliament, it, rather than Parliament, had the right to speak for the nation. Subsequently, the King escaped and made promises to negotiate with the Scots, the army, and Parliament. He secured the support of the Scots by promising them the establishment of Presbyterianism. Nevertheless, the Puritan army defeated the Scots and captured the king. Forty-five leaders of Parliament were arrested, and many more were barred from attending sessions.

What remained was termed the Rump Parliament. This Rump Parliament initiated proceedings against Charles, and the Commons proceeded with the trial, leading to Charles's beheading on January 30, 1649.

The Protectorate

The Scots recognized Charles II as their ruler, while the Irish seized the opportunity to rebel. The independent Puritans experienced further fragmentation. The Diggers advocated for a new social order characterized by universal property rights, while the Presbyterians insisted on a national church. Chaos threatened the stability of the land, prompting Cromwell to seize control. He endorsed the outcomes of the Parliament and quelled both the Irish rebellion and the royalist uprising in Scotland.

Charles II was compelled to flee to the continent. When the Rump Parliament began deliberating a law aimed at perpetuating its power, Cromwell intervened, expelling the remaining representatives and locking the building. He assumed mastery of the nation and adopted the title of Lord Protector, ruling with a Parliament comprised predominantly of English members. In reality, however, Cromwell wielded the true authority in the government. Subsequently, Cromwell embarked on a program of reformation targeting both church and state. Cromwell's religious policies were characterized by relative tolerance. He endeavored to establish a religious system capable of accommodating Presbyterians, Baptists, and even moderate proponents of episcopacy.

As a devout Puritan, he also sought to reform societal norms through legislation pertaining to the Lord's Day, horse races, cockfights, theater, and other activities. Nevertheless, his economic policies favored the middle class at the expense of the aristocracy and the poor, leading to opposition to the protectorate from both ends of the social spectrum. Despite facing opposition, Cromwell managed to maintain control of the country throughout his lifetime. However, he struggled to maintain a harmonious relationship with Parliament. He was offered the royal crown but declined it. In 1658, Cromwell designated his son Richard as his successor, but Richard lacked his father's capabilities and ultimately resigned his position.

The Restoration

The failure of the protectorate left no viable alternative but the restoration of the monarchy. Parliament summoned Charles II to reclaim his father's throne. The government reinstated both the episcopacy and the Book of Common Prayer and enacted laws targeting dissidents who found no place within the official church. However, these laws proved ineffective in suppressing the movements that had emerged during the preceding period of unrest, which continued to operate outside the confines of the law until toleration was decreed. In Scotland, the episcopacy was reestablished, leading to the deposition of ministers of Presbyterian persuasion. This resulted in riots and revolts, including the murder of Archbishop James Sharp. English forces intervened to support the Scottish royalists, and Presbyterian rebellions were suppressed.

On his deathbed, Charles II declared his allegiance to Catholicism. His brother and successor, James II, resolved to restore Roman Catholicism as the official religion. In England, he sought to enlist the support of dissidents by proclaiming religious tolerance; however, anti-Catholic sentiments persisted. Conditions in Scotland worsened as James appointed Catholics to positions of power and decreed the death penalty for anyone attending unauthorized worship services.

After three years under James II, the English rebelled and invited William, Prince of Orange, and his wife Mary to assume the throne. In 1688, William landed, prompting James to flee to France. By the following year, William and Mary had firmly secured possession of the Scottish crown. Their religious policy was characterized by relative tolerance. In England, tolerance was extended to anyone willing to subscribe to the 39 articles of 1562. Those who refused to swear allegiance, known as nonjurors, were granted tolerance as long as they did not conspire against the sovereigns. In Scotland, Presbyterianism became the official religion of the state, with the Westminster Confession serving as its doctrinal standard