Final exam pre-AP biology study flashcards

UNITS 7-11 STUDY GUIDE FOR BIOLOGY FINAL

COMMON ANCESTRY + EVIDENCE

  1. Fossils: Shows change over time in organisms by studying paleontology

  2. Geography: Certain species found on coastlines of separated continents. Possibly proves that continents were connected at one time.

  3. Embryology: Similarities in embryos of different organisms shows features that make a common ancestor.

  4. Anatomy: comparing body parts of different species:

A. Homologous structures: features that are similar/ same in structure but different in function.

B. Analogous structures: Structures with similar function, but not similar origin/area

C. Vestigial structures: body parts or organs that lack any useful function today but had a function for the ancestor: human and appendix, ostrich and its wings.

BIOGEOGRAPHY

Biogeography: the study of the geographical distribution of a species

*Supports the theory of common ancestry in a species because it shows that species in different areas evolved unique traits to adapt to those environments.

EXAMPLE: a species of bird discovered by Charles Darwin on the island of Galapagos were “Darwin’s Finches”. The finch species evolved different beaks/beak shape based on the food sources found on specific islands of the Galapagos demonstrating the process of NATURAL SELECTION.

ORGANISMS COLONIZE THROUGH VARIOUS METHODS:

-MIGRATION

-SWIMMING

-LAND BRIDGES/ SAND BARS

-FLYING

-FLOATING

-WIND DISPERSAL

EARLY IDEAS ABOUT EVOLUTION

Evolution: A process by which species adapt over time in response to their changing environment.

-Results in species being different from their ancestor.

-Considered a scientific THEORY because through the scientific method, it is an explanation of a natural phenomenon that is supported by facts NOT PROVEN.

Adapt: Getting used to or making modifications to something that is changing.

ENVIRONMENT: the surroundings in which an organism lives + is usually of specific geographic area.

EARLY SCIENTISTS PROPOSE EVOLUTION

  1. JEAN-BAPTISE LAMARCK: France, 1801 theorized that organisms evolve towards changes in their environment + can pass these changes to their offspring.

  2. CHARLES LYELL: UK, 1830. Published “principles of geology” and agrees that earth is very old because of changes over time, based on geological + fossil evidence.

  3. ALFRED WALLACE, UK, 1858. Stated that species have traits to become “attractive” in order to advertise phenotypic qualities to mate within a species to guarantee reproductive success.

  4. CHARLES DARWIN, UK, 1859. Published “on the origin of species” to summarize his theory of evolution based on the age of earth.

CHARLES DARWIN

Most famously known as the “architect of evolution by natural selection” . He advanced the views of development of life on earth and helped pave the way for biological + philosophical topics in history. Darwin traveled the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836. Through his journey, he gathered data + evidence from fossils, studied variations between species on the Galápagos Islands and observed adaptations of finches (birds) + tortoises.

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION

Natural selection: process where organisms are better adapted to their environment + tend to survive + produce more offspring to guarantee survival of its species = AKA “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”

Artificial selection: when humans change a species by breeding it for certain traits. Darwin compared what he learned about breeding to his ideas about adaptation. He said “the environment creates selective pressures instead of humans in artificial selection”.

*Darwin believed that adaptations arose over many generations + natural selection explains how evolution can occur through 4 main principles:

PRINCIPLES OF  EVOLUTION

  1. VARIATION: Some organisms have traits better suited to the environment,ent than others. These are differences in phenotypes.

  2. OVERPRODUCTION: Organisms produce more offspring than will survive. This can cause competition.

  3. ADAPTATION: Allows organisms to survive at a higher rate and individuals are naturally selected to survive + reproduce.

  4. DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION:  Idea that species change over time and give rise to a new species and share a common ancestor.

Fitness: measure of the ability to survive and produce more offspring relative to other members of the population.

*depending on phenotypes of organisms, as the environment changes, different traits become beneficial.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem: an area where all living and non-living things are linked together.

A.  ABIOTIC FACTORS: all non-living things in an ecosystem

EXAMPLES:

SOIL

WATER

ATMOSPHERE

TEMPERATURE

SUNLIGHT

B. BIOTIC FACTORS: all LIVING things in an ecosystem

Niche: the role or function an organism plays in its ecosystem

Competition: interaction with or between species where members attempt to access the same resource.

Habitat: natural environment where an organism lives and provides:

  1. Food sources/water

  2. Shelter

  3. Areas to hide from predators

  4. Mating sites

  5. Nesting sites

TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS:

  1. INSTINCT: A behavioral pattern that an animal is born with. Example: A woman’s motherly instinct towards her child.

  2. Learned behavior: teaching or creating a forced condition that allows organisms to train for a certain behavior.

  3. Hibernation: a behavioral pattern in which an animal reduces its activity during the winter season.

  4. Migration: a behavior in which an organism moves its location due to changes in season or weather.

  5. Camouflage:when an organism blend in with its environment in order to avoid being prey or to help it hunt more successfully.

  6. Mimicry: when an organism tries to resemble another organism

  7. Behavioral adaptation: something an organism does as a response to external stimuli (things going on around the organism) in order to survive. Example: hibernation.

  8. Structural adaptation: changes in structure or body parts to an organism that allows it to adapt + survive. Example: a special beak or spiky thorns.

  9. Physiological adaptation: an internal function that an organism does to better survive in its environment. Example: slow breathing. Example: spray a scent to scare off predators. Example: play dead.

SPECIES INTERACTIONS: SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS

*Within ecosystems, each species interacts with others. Sometimes in one of those relationships, one species is DISADVANTAGED. This results in competition for resources or it limits the size of the population. On the other hand, sometimes species from relationships where both BENEFIT and they all exist in greater numbers together. There a 5 types of these interactions:

  1. Mutualism: both species benefit + are dependent on their relationship. Can involve more than two species.

  2. Commensalism: 1 species benefits while the other is unaffected.

  3. Parasitism: a parasite lives in or on a host species taking nutrition away from it. The host is harmed, but not killed right away.

  4. Predation/herbivory: a predator kills prey + eats it. Predators may prey on various species or just one. When herbivores eat plants, it is called “herbivory”. Predator benefits and prey dies.

  5. Competition: individuals of the same or different species compete for the same limited resources. Both parties in this relationship are harmed.

PLANT KINGDOM

-Autotrophs (carry out photosynthesis)

-multicellular

-eukaryotes

-cell wall made of cellulose

-develop from a seed (most)

-adapted traits to live in many areas of earth

Botany: scientific study of plants.

Botanists: divide the plant kingdom into four main groups based on:

  1. Structure

  2. How they reproduce

Group 1: BRYOPHYTES

-Appeared approximately 429 million years ago, 1st photosynthesis plants on earth.

-fossils show how they were small in size

-non-vascular, no roots or tissue

-reproduce by spores

Example: mosses, liverwarts

Group 2: PTERIDOPHYTES

-vascular tissue (roots, leaves, stems)

-reproduce by spores

Example: ferns, horsetails

Group 3: Gymnosperms

-most ancient surviving seed plants

-They have seeds found in cones

-have needles instead of leaves to survive colder climates. Needles have a waxy coating to help insulate.

EXAMPLES: pine, spruces, redwoods, junipers, ginkgoes, cedar.

Canifers: “cone-bearing” plants.

Group 4: ANGIOSPERMS

-flowering plants that have become the most dominant on earth.

-reproduction involves flower/fruit

*the ovary surrounds + protects the seeds. After pollination, the ovary becomes a fruit.

-fruit attracts animals to help disperse the seeds so the species lives on.

(One)

Monocot: has one seed leaf. Includes corn, grass, coconuts, orchids, bananas, onions, wheat, agave.

(Two)

Dicot: 2 seed leaves: include beans, coffee, tomatoes, roses, apples, peas, and maple trees.

Woody stem: flowering plants like trees, shrubs, and vines.

Herbaceous stem: smooth, green stem

Annuals: flowering plants that grows, matures, flowers and produces seeds + dies in one growing season.

Biennials: flowering plants that complete their lifecycle in two years

Perennials: lives beyond two years and comes back every season, usually have woody stems.

ANIMAL KINGDOM

*THE MOST DIVERSE KINGDOM ON EARTH

-heterotrophic

-eukaryotes

-lock cell walls + chloroplasts

-multicellular

Zoology: the study of animals

*ALL ANIMALS EXHIBIT 7 ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS

  1. FEEDING: can be a variety of ways including herbivore, carnivores, amnivores, detrivores, filter feeders, parasites.

  2. RESPIRATION: take in O2 releasing CO2 through lungs, gills, skin, simple diffusion.

  3. CIRCULATION: have a circulatory system made of veins, capillaries, arteries + vascular tissue. Some circulate through diffusion.

  4. EXCRETION: primary waste product is ammonia, usually as liquid urine + solid waste.

  5. RESPOND TO STIMULI: have receptor cells to react to light/sound/touch. Have a complex nerve cells and nervous system.

  6. MOVEMENT: most animals are motile (can move on their own) via swimming, crawling, flying, slithering, hopping, walking, running, etc. they have a muscular system that works with the skeletal system to help move.

  7. REPRODUCTION: Most reproduce sexually which increases genetic diversity. Many invertebrates reproduce asexually to increase their populations in a quick amount of time.

ANIMAL BODY STRUCTURE

Body symmetry: the way an animal’s body + parts are arranged:

  1. Asymmetrical: no pattern/ irregular shape. Example: sea sponge.

  2. Radial: shaped like a wheel (circular). Example: jellyfish, octopus, starfish

  3. Bilateral: has a right + left side. Example: humans, cats, insects.

(Head)

Cephalization: having a head at the anterior of the body; usually has sense organs like eyes, ears, nose, and a brain.

Body sides:

Anterior: towards the head

Posterior: towards the tail or bottom

Dorsal: back side

Ventral: belly side

Segmentation: animals that have body segments specialized for specific purposes.

Examples: human ribs + spine. Worms have segments to help crawl.

STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. ZYGOTE: Begins as a fertilized egg

  2. BLASTULA: hollow ball of special cells

  3. BLASTOPHORE: Cells pinch inward to create an anus or mouth opening:

A. PROTOSOME: animals w/ mouth forming first

B. DEUTROSOME: animals w/ anus forming first

  1. EMBRYO: Develops into three layers:

A. endoderm: intermost layer w/ digestive + respiratory tracts.

B. Mesoderm: middle layer w/muscle, circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems

C. Ectoderm: outer layer, develops into sense organs, nerves and skin.