Political Geography Notes
Chapter 8 – Political Geography
Key Questions
Where are states distributed?
How are states created?
How are states organized?
What threats do states face?
Agriculture
Modification of the Earth’s surface by cultivating plants and raising animals for sustenance (survival) or profit
Two choices: buy it (developed) or grow it (developing)
Crop = any plant cultivated by people
Hunter-Gatherers
Early humans obtained food by hunting & gathering
Small groups (<50)
Seasonal migration & avoidance of others
Origin of Agriculture
How did agriculture originate?
Agricultural Revolution
Time (8000BC) when humans first domesticated plants & animals and no longer relied on hunting & gathering
Populations grew and civilizations emerged
Environmental Factor: end of the last Ice Age
Cultural Factor: desire for permanent settlement
Combination of accident & experimentation
Originated in multiple hearths and diffused in many directions
Origin of Agriculture
How did agriculture originate?
Examples of hearths and dispersal routes for agriculture include:
Southwest Asia: barley, emmer wheat, lentil, bread wheat, einkorn wheat.
East Asia: rice, millet, soybean, Chinese chestnut, walnut.
Sub-Saharan Africa: sorghum, yam, African rice, millet, cow-pea, coffee.
Southeast Asia: coconut, mango, taro, pigeon pea, chicken, finger millet.
Central Asia: sheep, goat, rye, oats.
Latin America: cassava, squash, pepper, potato, alpaca, cotton, lima bean, llama, maize, sweet potato.
Evolution of States
How are states created?
Band à Tribe à Chiefdom à State à Empire
Before the 1800’s, Earth was divided into city-states, empires, kingdoms, and other small areas ruled by hereditary nobles (much was left unorganized)
Ancient States
City-state: a sovereign state made up of a single town and the surrounding countryside
Began in the Fertile Crescent, in the ancient Middle East (Mesopotamia)
Sometimes one city or tribe would gain dominance over others and form an empire (Ex. Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians)
The Fertile Crescent is a region in the Middle East, including parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
Key cities in Mesopotamia included Babylon and Ur, located in what is now Iraq.
Evolution of States
How are states created?
From the Roman Empire to Medieval States.
The Roman Empire was the height of unity in the ancient world.
But it collapsed in the 5th century because of border attacks and internal disputes.
The European portion was fragmented into a number of estates
These estates were controlled by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other hereditary nobles
Consolidation into powerful kingdoms led to the idea of modern states (England, France, and Spain)
The Roman Empire in 100 A.D. controlled a vast territory including regions in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.
Key cities included Rome, Athens, Alexandria and Carthage.
Evolution of States
How are states created?
States in 20th Century Europe
At the start of the century, most of Europe was ruled by emperors, kings, and queens
After World War I, the leaders of victorious countries met to redraw the map of Europe (Versailles Peace Conference)
The redrawn map was not a path to peace (see WWII)
Germany divided into 2 states from 1949-1990
The map of Europe went through significant changes in 1800 and through 1980, with the rise and fall of empires and the formation of new nation-states.
The German-speaking area in 1914 was a point of contention and territorial dispute.
A World of States
Where are states distributed?
The world is divided into about 200 states (almost all land is claimed).
Most are members of the United Nations (U.N.).
State (Country)
An area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs (sovereignty)
Occupies a defined territory and contains a permanent population
Sovereignty
A state having control over its internal affairs without interference from other states
A World of States
Where are states distributed?
In 1940, the world only had about 50 countries
A World of States
Where are states distributed?
The United Nations (U.N.)
Most important global organization
Created after WWII by the victorious Allies
Provides a place for discussing international problems
Promotes cooperation to address economic issues, protect human rights, and provide humanitarian relief
Sometimes intervenes in conflict, authorizing military and peacekeeping actions
The United Nations has grown significantly since its founding, with numerous countries joining in different decades:
Original UN members: 51
1940s: added 8
1950s: added 24
1960s: added 42
1970s: added 25
1980s: added 7
1990s: added 31
2000s: added 4
2010s: added 1
Challenges in Defining States
Where are states distributed?
The sovereignty of some areas is disputed
Korea
Taiwan
Senkaku Islands
Western Sahara
Kosovo
How many countries are there really?
193? (members of the U.N.)
195? (Holy See & Palestine as permanent observers)
197? (Kosovo & Taiwan)
Challenges in Defining States
Where are states distributed?
NORTH AND SOUTH KOREA
Korea
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (N)
Republic of Korea (S)
Colony of Japan before WWII
Divided into occupied zones by the U.S. and former U.S.S.R.
N invaded S in 1950 = Korean War
Both claim sovereignty over the entire peninsula
The conflict between North and South Korea stems from their division after WWII and the subsequent Korean War.
Both Koreas claim sovereignty over the entire Korean Peninsula.
Challenges in Defining States
Where are states distributed?
TAIWAN
Taiwan
Most countries consider them separate
China & Taiwan both consider themselves part of China (sort of).
1940’s Civil War: Nationalists (Taiwan) vs. Communists (China)
Nationalists still believe they are the rightful leaders of China (U.S. agreed until 1971).
The status of Taiwan is complex, with most countries recognizing it as separate, while China views it as a breakaway province.
The conflict dates back to the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s.
Challenges in Defining States
Where are states distributed?
Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands
Japan, China, and Taiwan all claim sovereignty
Largest of 5 islands only 1.7 square miles
Western Sahara
Spain until 1976, then rebels claimed independence
Morocco built a wall around it & maintains control
The Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands are a point of territorial dispute among Japan, China, and Taiwan.
Western Sahara's status is contested, with Morocco maintaining control despite claims of independence by rebels.
Challenges in Defining States
Where are states distributed?
The Law of the Sea (Treaty)
States bordering oceans claim ocean territory for defense, resources, and economic control
167 countries, disputes go to Tribunal or the ICJ
Nation-States
How are states created?
Nation
A large group of people united by common culture or a shared history (language, ethnicity, etc.)
Nation-state
A state whose territory corresponds with a particular nation (or ethnic group, when ethnicity = nationality).
To preserve and enhance cultural traditions, nations/ethnic groups seek to govern themselves
Self-determination is the right of these groups to govern themselves within sovereign states (without interference)
Nation-States
How are states created?
Multinational State
Contains more than one nation (ethnic group) with traditions of self-determination
Sometimes, separate nations contribute peacefully to the formation of a single nationality
Sometimes, they have trouble maintaining unity and preventing ethnicities from breaking away and forming their own nation-states (Ex. Czechoslovakia; Yugoslavia; the Soviet Union)
Nation-States
How are states created?
Russia remains the largest multinational state with a diverse array of ethnic groups and regions.
Slavic peoples: Russians, Ukrainians
Turkic peoples: Tatars, Bashkirs, Azerbaijanis
Other Indo-European peoples: Lithuanians, Armenians, Ossetians
Paleo-Siberian peoples: Nganasany, Evenki, Eveny, Yakuts, Chukchi, Koryaks, Nivkhi, Eskimos
Caucasian peoples: Georgians, Chechens, Ingush, peoples of Dagestan
Other Uralic and Altaic peoples: Karelians, Mari, Komi, Mordvins, Udmurts, Mansi, Khanty, Nentsy, Buryats, Kalmyks, Evenki, Eveny, Nganasany
Colonies
How are states created?
Colony
a territory legally tied to a sovereign state instead of being independent
Colonialism
an effort by one country to establish settlements in another territory and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles
European Colonialism:
3 Reasons: “God, gold, and glory”
God = Promote Christianity
Gold = Extract useful resources
Glory = Expand power and influence
Much of the world was once a European colony
In 1914, colonial possessions were held by several European powers, including:
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Russia
Spain
United Kingdom
Colonies
How are states created?
Remaining Colonies include:
Guam (U.S.)
New Caledonia (France)
American Samoa (U.S.)
Western Sahara (disputed)
Tokelau (New Zealand)
Gibraltar (U.K.)
Bermuda (U.K.)
Turks and Caicos (U.K.)
St. Helena (U.K.)
British Virgin Islands (U.K.)
Anguilla (U.K.)
Cayman Islands (U.K.)
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Montserrat (U.K.)
French Polynesia (France)
Pitcairn Islands (U.K.)
Colonies
How are states created?
Polar Regions: Many Claims
Antarctica
only large landmass on Earth that’s not part of a state
Many countries have made overlapping claims
U.S. and Russia do not recognize the claims of any country to Antarctica
Antarctic Treaty (1959)
states may establish research stations but not military bases
U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
permits countries to make claims in the Arctic Circle until 2009 (for resources)
Claims to Antarctica include those by Argentina, Chile, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, Norway, and France.
The Arctic Circle is subject to territorial claims by countries such as Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (Greenland).
Boundaries
How are states organized?
Boundary
Invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory
Selecting the boundary location is very difficult and can cause conflict (focal point of contact)
3 types: physical, cultural, and geometric
Frontier
A zone where no one has complete political control
Wide geographic area, historically separated states
Older frontiers replaced by newer boundaries as technology allows greater control
Boundaries
How are states organized?
Physical Boundary
Significant features of the natural landscape
Easily seen on maps and in real life
Ex. Deserts, Mountains, and Water
Cultural Boundary
Separation by language, ethnicity, or religion
Geometric Boundary
Lines drawn on the map, often a result of treaties
Physical boundaries are illustrated by the border between Chile and Argentina, defined by the Andes Mountains.
Geometric boundaries are exemplified by the U.S. and Canada border, which follows a straight line.
Cultural boundaries can be seen in Cyprus, where the division is based on Turkish and Greek areas.
Shapes of States
How are states organized?
The shape of a state affects boundary length, the potential for communication & conflict, and the ease of internal control & social unity
States have 5 basic shapes:
Elongated
Fragmented
Prorupted
Compact
Perforated
Some are also landlocked (no direct sea access), which can cause problems with trade (15/55 countries in Africa, due to colonialism)
Shapes of States
How are states organized?
Elongated
Long and narrow
Poor internal communication & potential isolation
Fragmented
Discontinuous territory (because of water or other states)
Problems with communication and unity
Shapes of States
How are states organized?
Prorupted
Has a long extension
Created for access to a resource or to separate other states
Compact
Small & efficient
Easy communication, but no guarantee of good government
Shapes of States
How are states organized?
Perforated
One state surrounds another
Leads to dependence or interference
Governing States
How are states organized?
Local Scale: Unitary vs. Federal
Internal governments are organized by 2 approaches.
Unitary State
Power is organized under a strong central government
Works best in compact, homogenous states with a strong sense of national unity
Federal State
Power is organized into units of local government
More suitable for large, heterogeneous states
Ethnic minorities can have some regional control
Examples of federal and unitary states are shown on a world map.
Governing States
How are states organized?
National Scale: Regime Type
National governments can be classified as 3 types.
Democracy
country where citizens elect leaders who can run for office
Autocracy
country run according to the interests of the leader
Anocracy
a mix of both, not fully democratic or autocratic
Democracies have institutions that allow citizens to express preferences on policies and leaders, with checks and balances to limit executive power.
Autocracies have leaders selected through defined rules, restrict citizen participation, and have no meaningful checks on power.
Regime types around the world in 2014: Democracy, Anocracy, Autocracy.
Governing States
How are states organized?
Trends in Democracy show changes in the number of democracies, anocracies, and autocracies over time (1950-2010).
The State Fragility Index indicates the stability of different states: Sustainable, Stable, Warning, Alert.
Electoral Geography
How are states organized?
Gerrymandering
Redrawing legislative boundaries (voting districts) for the purpose of benefiting the party in power
A way to “bend the rules” for an advantage (only 10% of congressional seats are “competitive”)
Most democratic countries use independent commissions to redraw boundaries (not the U.S.)
Electoral Geography
How are states organized?
Forms of Gerrymandering:
Cracking
like-minded voters spread across districts, to prevent them from gaining a majority
Packing
like-minded voters grouped into a single district, to limit their influence in other districts
Europe’s Fragile Cooperation
What threats do states face?
States cooperate through military & economic alliances
Military Alliance
Offers protection to a state through the threat of retaliation by the combined force of its allies
Economic Alliance
Enlarges the market for a state’s goods, services, and labor
Europe’s Fragile Cooperation
What threats do states face?
Military Cooperation in Europe
More important during the Cold War (1940s-1990s)
The U.S. and the Soviet Union were the world’s two superpowers
Allies of the U.S. joined NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Allies of the Soviets joined the Warsaw Pact
Balance of Power
a condition of roughly equal strength between opposing alliances
Expansion of NATO includes original members (1949) and countries that joined in later years (1952-2017).
Europe’s Fragile Cooperation
What threats do states face?
Economic Cooperation in Europe
More important after the Cold War (1990-now)
The European Union (EU) was formed to promote development of member states through economic and political cooperation
Elected representatives (European Parliament)
Subsidies (tax money) to farmers & poor regions
No borders for trade, labor, and corporations
The creation of the Eurozone (a single central bank and common currency) led to economic unity in Europe
Weaker states have had to implement harsh & unpopular policies, and stronger states have had to subsidize them
Expansion of the European Union includes countries that joined in different periods (1958-2015), with possible future members indicated.
Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations
What threats do states face?
Terrorism
Systematic use of violence to intimidate a population and/or force a government to grant demands
Spreads fear and anxiety through bombing, kidnapping, hijacking, and assassination
Views violence as a means to bring attention to issues not being addressed through peaceful acts
Believes so strongly they are willing to die (or kill)
Attacks against Americans include events such as the Oklahoma City bombing (1995), the 9/11 attacks (2001), and the Boston Marathon bombing (2013).
Terrorism by Individuals & Organizations
What threats do states face?
Attacks against others by terrorist organizations such as Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State.