5.Foreign Policy

The State

Tools of Statecraft

• Diplomacy: Utilization of negotiations and discussions among states to resolve conflicts and enhance relationships.

  • Public Diplomacy: Efforts by the state to engage with foreign publics to promote national interests.

  • Track-Two Diplomacy: Informal dialogues and problem-solving activities between individuals from different countries.

• Force: The application of military power to achieve foreign policy goals.

  • Compellence: Forcing an adversary to take a specific action.

  • Deterrence: Preventing an adversary from taking an undesirable action.

Sanctions

• Types of Sanctions: Can be categorized as positive (carrot) or negative (stick).

  • Examples:

    • Political: Target politically sensitive actions or states.

    • Economic: Restrict trade or financial interactions.

    • Cultural: Limits on cultural exchanges or collaborations.

Economic Statecraft

Types of Sanctions (Table 5.1)

Positive Sanctions

• Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) Status: Granting the target state trading privileges similar to those of key trading partners.

  • Examples:

    • U.S. MFN status to China despite its human rights issues.

    • U.S. investment incentives in post-apartheid South Africa.

• Sensitive Trade: Allowing trade in certain goods even with potentially hostile nations.

  • Example: France and Germany's export of equipment to Iran.

Negative Sanctions

• Boycotts: Withdrawal from trading goods/services with the target state.

  • Examples:

    • U.S. freezing Iranian assets during the 1979 hostage crisis.

    • Economic sanctions against South Africa during apartheid.

• Bans on Imports: Prohibiting certain products or goods from entering the country.

  • Example: Iraq's oil sales prohibition post-Gulf War.

Foreign Policy

Definition

• Foreign Policy: A set of decisions made by a government that influence the state’s interactions with other states. It aims to alter the international system and other nations' policies to achieve specific goals.

Different Meanings

• Process: Series of actions generating outcomes.

• Objectives: Goals to achieve within the context of foreign relations.

• Principles: Guiding norms and ideals driving policy decisions.

• Means: Tools and methods employed to implement policies.

Influences on Foreign Policy

Major Sources

• Influences examined through three levels of analysis:

  • Global Influences: International factors impacting foreign policy.

  • State or Internal Influences: Domestic characteristics affecting decision-making.

  • Individual Influences: Roles of key figures in shaping policy initiatives.

Permanent Material Influences

• Geopolitical Position: The geographical location of a state influencing its foreign policy priorities.

• Geopolitics: Study of geography's impact on international politics and policy-making.

Geographic Influences

• Different terrains and geographical features affect state behavior and interactions:

  • E.g., mountainous regions or bodies of water can isolate or influence trade routes.

Less Permanent Material Elements

• States’ Attributes impacting foreign policy include:

  • Size

  • Location

  • Natural Resources

  • Economic Conditions

  • Military Capabilities

Human and Institutional Elements

• Public Involvement: Population's opinions, political culture, and interest groups can sway foreign policy decisions.

Type of Government/Type of Economy

• Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies are less likely to engage in conflict with one another.

• End of History Thesis: The belief that liberal democracies with market economies will dominate future political landscapes.

Policy Making Models

Rational Choice Model

• Steps:

  1. Problem Recognition and Definition.

  2. Goal Selection.

  3. Identification of Alternatives.

  4. Evaluation of Cost/Benefit for each Alternative.

  5. Choice of Best Option.

• Assumes the state is a rational, unitary actor.

Bureaucratic Model

• Role of Bureaucracy: Implements policy through personnel in various governmental sectors.

Pluralist Model

• Various interests: Interest groups, public opinion, and mass movements influence the decision-making process.

Rationality in Foreign Policy

Obstacles to Rational Choice

• Issues such as incomplete information, policymakers’ personal agendas, and the influence of past experiences can limit rationality.

Bureaucratic Efficiency

• Factors like Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), turf wars, and groupthink can impede effective decision-making.

The Role of Individuals

Key Influencers

• Individuals such as foreign policy elites, public opinion, and media play significant roles in shaping policies.

Leadership Models

• History-making Individuals: Leaders like presidents significantly influence policy direction (Nixon, Reagan, etc.).

Leadership Capacity Factors

• Personality, control over policy, political efficacy, information access, and crisis management skills.

Theories Regarding Individual Roles

• Liberals: Emphasize the choices and impacts of individuals on international relations.

• Realists: Argue individuals are constrained by the anarchic system.

• Radicals: Highlight class interests and constraints imposed by capitalism.

• Constructivists: Focus on the individual as a key policy player shaping collective identity and policy outcomes.