NUR1019 revision_wilson
Page 1: Title Page
NUR1019 Revision
Dr. Wilson Leung
Page 2: The Respiratory System
Overview of the human respiratory system.
Page 3: The Respiratory Tract
Upper Respiratory Tract
Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, and moistens air.
Pharynx: Passage where air and food cross.
Glottis: Opening between vocal cords to the larynx.
Larynx (Voice Box): Produces sound; covered by epiglottis during swallowing.
Lower Respiratory Tract
Trachea (Windpipe): Passage for air to bronchi.
Bronchus: Passage of air to the lungs.
Bronchioles: Passage of air to alveoli.
Lungs: Contains alveoli for gas exchange.
Diaphragm: Skeletal muscle involved in ventilation.
Page 4: Mechanism of Breathing
Explanation of ventilation processes.
Page 5: Ventilation - Inspiration/Inhalation
Active Phase: Muscular effort involved.
Diaphragm contracts and flattens.
External intercostal muscles contract.
Rib cage moves upward and outward.
Increased thoracic cavity volume leads to reduced intrapulmonary pressure.
Air flows from higher atmospheric pressure to lower intrapulmonary pressure.
Page 6: Ventilation - Expiration/Exhalation
Passive Phase: No muscular effort required.
Diaphragm relaxes and resumes dome shape.
External intercostal muscles relax, rib cage moves down and in.
Decreased thoracic cavity volume leads to increased intrapulmonary pressure.
Air flows out of the lungs until pressures are equal.
Page 7: Gas Exchange and Transport
Overview of gas exchange processes.
Page 8: External Respiration
Gas exchange in lungs.
Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into pulmonary capillary blood.
Carbon dioxide from blood diffuses into alveoli.
Page 9: Internal Respiration
Gas exchange in tissues.
Oxygen from blood diffuses into tissue fluid where it is consumed.
Carbon dioxide from tissue fluid diffuses into blood.
Page 10: Gas Transport - Oxygen Transport
97-98% of oxygen transported by hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin.
2-3% transported dissolved in plasma.
Increases in CO2, acidity, and temperature enhance oxygen release in tissues.
Page 11: Gas Transport - Carbon Dioxide Transport
Dissolved in blood plasma: 10%.
Carbaminohemoglobin: 30% combines with hemoglobin.
Carbonic acid formation: 60% combines with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.
Key reactions facilitated by carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells.
Chloride Shift: Maintains electrical balance between plasma and red blood cells.
Page 12: Cardiovascular System
Overview of the cardiovascular system.
Page 13: Shape/Size, Location, and Orientation of the Heart
Hollow, cone-shaped muscular organ.
Size: about the size of a fist.
Located in mediastinum; base points towards right shoulder, apex points towards left hip.
Base deep to the second rib, apex at fifth intercostal space.
Page 14: Functions of the Heart
Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Maintains unidirectional blood flow.
Creates blood pressure for circulation.
Regulates blood supply based on body needs.
Acts as an endocrine gland (produces ANH).
Page 15: Chambers of the Heart
4 Chambers: 2 atria (superior) and 2 ventricles (inferior).
Atria have auricles for expansion during blood filling.
Interatrial and interventricular septa separate chambers.
Page 16: Operation of the Heart Valves
AV Valves: Open during filling; close during contraction to prevent backflow.
Semilunar Valves: Close when ventricles relax to prevent backflow.
Page 17: Heart Sounds
First sound (LUB): AV valves close; ventricles begin contraction.
Second sound (DUP): Semilunar valves close; ventricles relax.
Heart murmurs: Indicate valve issues; may allow backflow.
Page 18: Coronary Circulation
Coronary arteries branch from the aorta to supply blood to the heart.
Blood from cardiac capillaries returns through cardiac veins to the right atrium.
Page 19: Cardiac Cycle
All events during one heartbeat.
Average heart rate: 70 bpm at rest.
Systole: Contraction phase.
Diastole: Relaxation phase.
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
Atrial Systole: Blood enters ventricles, AV valves open, semilunar valves closed.
Ventricular Systole: Blood pumped out, AV valves closed, semilunar valves opened.
Atrial and Ventricular Diastole: Blood returning, AV valves open, semilunar valves closed.
Page 20: Cardiac Cycle - Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Records electrical activity during the cardiac cycle.
Components
P wave: Atrial depolarization.
QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization.
T wave: Ventricular repolarization.
Arrhythmias: Bradycardia, tachycardia, fibrillation.
Page 21: Cardiac Output
Volume of blood pumped by a ventricle in one minute.
Average at rest: 5,250 ml/min.
Formula: Cardiac output = Heart rate x Stroke volume.
Page 22: Cardiac Output Factors
Heart Rate
Influenced by autonomic nervous system and hormones.
Increased by sympathetic stimulation, decreased by parasympathetic.
Baroreceptors help regulate heart rate and blood pressure.
Stroke Volume
Amount of blood pumped per beat.
Influenced by venous return and blood pressure differences.
Page 23: Stroke Volume Influences
Venous Return
Amount of blood entering heart chambers affects contraction strength.
Frank Starling Law: More blood leads to stronger contractions.
Blood Pressure Difference
Contraction strength must oppose arterial pressure to open valves.
Page 28: Types and Functions of Blood Vessels
3 Types of Vessels
Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart.
Capillaries: Site of gas exchange.
Veins: Return blood to the heart.
Page 29: Arteries and Arterioles
Thick, strong walls; carry blood away from the heart.
Arterioles regulate blood pressure through constriction and dilation.
Autonomic nervous system controls arteriolar contraction.
Page 30: Capillaries
Thin walls allow exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes.
Not all capillary beds are active at the same time, controlled by precapillary sphincters.
Page 31: Veins and Venules
Thinner walls than arteries; prevent backflow with valves.
Act as blood reservoirs; over 50% of blood volume resides in veins.
Page 32: Blood Pressure
Force of blood against vessel walls.
Calculated as cardiac output x peripheral resistance.
Page 33: Blood Pressure and Cardiac Output
Heart rate and stroke volume directly influence blood pressure.
Venous return also plays a critical role.
Page 34: Blood Pressure and Peripheral Resistance
Neural Regulation
Baroreceptors detect blood pressure changes and signal centers to adjust heart rate.
Hormonal Regulation
Hormones like epinephrine and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system affect blood pressure.
Page 38: Pulmonary Circuit
Blood flows from the heart to lungs and back:
Right atrium to right ventricle.
Pulmonary trunk to arteries to capillaries.
Back to left atrium through pulmonary veins.
Page 39: Systemic Circuit
Blood flows from the heart to the body and back:
Left ventricle to aorta.
Through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries.
Back to right atrium via superior/inferior vena cava.
Page 41: Composition of Blood
Layers after centrifugation
Top layer: Plasma (55%).
Bottom layer: Formed elements (45%): red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets.
Page 42: Functions of Blood
Main Functions
Transport: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones.
Defense: Immune response against pathogens.
Regulation: Body temperature, pH, electrolytes.
Page 43: Plasma
Liquid portion of blood: 92% water, 8% organic molecules and salts.
Plasma proteins: Albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, etc.
Page 44: Formed Elements
Produced in red bone marrow through hematopoiesis.
Types of blood cells derived from multipotent stem cells.
Page 45: Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Biconcave, no nucleus; contains hemoglobin for oxygen transport.
Page 46: White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
Fight infections and remove dead cells; various types with specialized functions.
Page 47: Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Cell fragments important for clotting; lifespan about 10 days.
Page 48: Hemostasis
Cessation of bleeding involves:
Vascular spasm.
Platelet plug formation.
Coagulation, requiring plasma proteins.
Page 49: Blood Transfusion
Transfer of blood requires typing to avoid clumping.
Page 50: ABO Blood Groups
Based on the presence of antigens/antibodies.
Page 51: ABO Blood Groups - Cross-Matching
Importance of testing for compatibility.
Page 52: ABO Blood Groups - Overview
Type O: universal donor; Type AB: universal recipient.
Page 53: Musculoskeletal System
Overview of the system consisting of bones and muscles.
Page 54: The Skeletal System
Composed of bones, joints, cartilage, ligaments; functions include support, protection, and blood cell production.
Page 55: Classification of Bones
Types: Long, short, flat, irregular, round.
Page 56: Anatomy of a Long Bone
Structure: Epiphysis, diaphysis, periosteum, medullary cavity.
Page 57: Axial Skeleton
Comprises the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
Page 58: Skull
Protects the brain and contains cranial and facial bones.
Page 59: Vertebral Column
Composed of vertebrae; protects the spinal cord and provides support.
Page 60: The Rib Cage
Functions to protect vital organs and assist in breathing.
Page 61: The Sternum
Attachment site for diaphragm; consists of 3 parts.
Page 62: Appendicular Skeleton
Composed of bones forming the arms and legs, as well as girdles.
Page 63: Pectoral Girdle
Composed of the clavicles and scapulae; provides shoulder support.
Page 64: Upper Limb
Anatomy of the arms, including the humerus and forearms.
Page 65: Hand
Structure includes carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
Page 66: Lower Limb
Includes thigh, knee, leg, and foot bones.
Page 67: Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
Summary of bone classifications.
Page 68: Joints (Articulations)
Overview of joints and their classifications.
Page 69: Classification of Joints
Types: fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.
Page 70: Types of Synovial Joints
Classification based on movement capabilities.
Page 71: The Muscular System
Functionality of muscle contraction across three muscle types.
Page 72: Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
Innervation and action potential leading to contraction.
Page 73: Contraction of Skeletal Muscle (Continued)
Role of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine in muscle contraction.
Page 74: Energy Source for Muscle Contraction
Breakdown of ATP and various systems for energy.
Page 75: Digestive System
Overview of the organs involved in digestion.
Page 78: Digestive System Overview
Alimentary canal and accessory organs involved in digestion.
Page 79: Digestive Tract Organs
List of organs involved in digestion.
Page 80: The Mouth
Physical and chemical digestion process begins here.
Page 81: The Pharynx
Continued pathway for air and food.
Page 82: Swallowing
Process of moving food from mouth to stomach.
Page 83: The Esophagus
Muscular tube allowing food transfer to the stomach.
Page 84: The Stomach
J-shaped organ responsible for food storage and digestion.
Page 85: Digestive Functions of the Stomach
Physical and chemical actions breaking down food.
Page 86: The Small Intestine
Major site for nutrient absorption; composed of three regions.
Page 87: Wall of the Small Intestine
Features that increase surface area for digestion.
Page 88: Functions of the Small Intestine - Digestion
Role of bile and pancreatic juice in digestion.
Page 89: Functions of the Small Intestine - Absorption
Mechanisms of nutrient absorption and movement.
Page 90: The Large Intestine
Main functions include water absorption and waste storage.
Page 91: Salivary Glands
Role in digestion through saliva production.
Page 92: Saliva
Components of saliva and their functions.
Page 93: The Pancreas
Dual roles in digestion and hormone regulation.
Page 94: The Liver
Major functions including detoxification and protein synthesis.
Page 95: Liver Functions
Overview of crucial liver functions in metabolism.
Page 96: The Gallbladder
Storage and release of bile for fat digestion.
Page 97: Renal System
Overview of the urinary system functions.
Page 98: Organs of the Urinary System
Kidneys: Main organs producing urine.
Page 99: The Urinary System Functions
Produces urine.
Transports urine via ureters.
Stores urine in the bladder.
Excretes urine through the urethra.
Page 100: Urine Formation - Glomerular Filtration
Blood filtration processes beginning in the kidneys.
Page 101: Urine Formation - Tubular Reabsorption
Reabsorption of substances back into blood.
Page 102: Urine Formation - Tubular Secretion
Removal of substances from blood into urine.
Page 103: Reabsorption of Water
Mechanisms and hormone influences on water retention.
Page 106: Reabsorption of Electrolytes
Hormonal regulation by aldosterone and ANH affecting volume and pressure.
Page 108: Lymphatic and Immune System
Overview of immune functions and defenses.
Page 109: Nonspecific Defenses - First Line of Defense
Barriers to pathogen entry include skin and mucous membranes.
Page 110: Nonspecific Defenses - Second Line of Defense
Inflammatory response characteristics and steps.
Page 112: Specific Defenses - Third Line of Defense
Mechanisms involving lymphocytes and antibodies.
Page 113: Specific Defenses - B Cells Immunity
Function of B cells and antibody-mediated response.
Page 114: Specific Defenses - T Cells Immunity
Function and types of T cells in adaptive immunity.
Page 116: Immunity Types
Contrast between active and passive immunity.
Page 118: Passive Immunity
Mechanisms of natural and artificial passive immunity.
Page 119: Active vs Passive Immunity
Overview of mechanisms and differences in acquisition.