ACTIVE VOICE: the doer of the action

PASSIVE VOICE: the receiver of the action

AV SIMPLE PRESENT

Rita writes a letter.

PV SIMPLE PRESENT

A letter is written by Rita.

AV SIMPLE PAST

Rita wrote a letter.

PV SIMPLE PAST

A letter was written by Rita.

AV SIMPLE FUTURE

Rita will write a letter.

PV SIMPLE FUTURE

A letter will be written by Rita.

AV PRESENT PERFECT

Rita has written a letter.

PV PRESENT PERFECT

A letter has been written by Rita.

AV PAST PERFECT

Rita had written a letter.

PV PAST PERFECT

A letter had been written by Rita.

AV FUTURE PERFECT

Rita will have written a letter.

PV FUTURE PERFECT

A letter will have been written by Rita.

AV PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Rita is writing a letter.

PV PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

A letter is being written by Rita.

AV PAST PROGRESSIVE

Rita was writing a letter,

PV PAST PROGRESSIVE

A letter was being written by Rita.

AV MODAL VERBS

Rita would write a letter.

PV MODAL VERBS

A letter would be written by Rita.

PREJUDICE: an always negative opinion about things that can’t be controlled, causes stereotyping and discrimination, preconceived opinion without knowledge of facts.

BIAS: preferring something over the other, the tendency to lean in a certain direction, either Towards (in favor) or Against (not in favor) someone or something, leads to unfairness.

BIAS IN WRITING:

PREJUDICE: against something an author is writing about

FAVORITISM: for something an author is writing about

OPINION: influences the feelings, thoughts, and actions of someone.

HOW TO DETERMINE BIAS:

1. Look at the use of evidence (positive or negative evidence for one side of an issue)

2. Look at the author’s tone (details, word choice-what the author tells and doesn’t tell, descriptive language - create an image in the reader’s mind)

3. DENOTATION: dictionary meaning

4. CONNOTATION: determines if something is positive or negative

RECOGNIZING BIAS:

1. Loaded words- words that are charged with emotion (positive or negative)

2. Stereotypes- labeling someone or a group because of their affiliation

3. Generalization

4. One-sided argument- only shows one side

5. Facts and Opinions

EVALUATING INFORMATION WE MUST SEEK:

1. RELEVANCE: The source must provide useful information, identify the main idea and important details as well as supporting ideas

2. TRUTHFULNESS: supplies the information it possesses the information is objective and factual

3. VALIDITY

FACT: not debatable but is verifiable, proven to be true by the use of evidence, it is true in all cases, it is objective and relies on observation or research

FALSE FACTS: statements that are established as true but are not, as long as it can be proven it can still be a fact

OPINION: neither true nor false, can’t be proven as it reflects on someone’s belief and views which may vary from person to person, it is a personal claim, does not necessarily require support, and certain qualities

ARGUMENT: an act of communicating one’s perspective, it is a claim that needs to be worth making, valid, sound, and logical and must provide reasonable, relevant, and sufficient support

CLAIM/CONCLUSION: idea we are convinced to believe

PREMISE: support or reason for the conclusion, maybe more than one

VALID: logically supports the conclusion even if one premise is wrong

SOUND: it is valid, the premise and conclusion should be verified

FALLACY: use of invalid or faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument

1. APPEAL TO TRADITION

   • Using the historical preferences of the people as evidence

2. AD HOMINEM

   • Attacking the person making the argument even if it is irrelevant to the argument itself

3. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE

   • Assumption of a conclusion or fact based primarily on the lack of evidence

4. APPEAL TO PITY

   • Attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity

5. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

   • Insisting a claim is true because of “valid authority or expert” on the issue without supporting evidence offered

   • Authority is a contain in their field

   • Not an authority on the topic

   • Not an authority at all

6. CIRCULAR REASONING

   • Circular reasoning with no useful information. (Maganda siya dahil hindi siya pangit)

7. QUESTIONABLE CAUSE

   • One thing caused another because they are regularly associated

8. HASTY GENERALIZATION

   • Stereotyping, if one does it then everyone must do it as well

9. RED HERRING

   • Redirect the argument to another issue (If I fail a test, it is ok since the smartest also failed)

10. SLIPPERY SLOPE

    • Taking minor action will lead to major consequences, overthinking

11. STRAW MAN

    • Exaggerating an argument (He poked her, He STABBED her)

12. YOU TOO FALLACY

    • Defending an error by pointing out that an opponent made the same error

13. POST HOC

    • Since an event occurred before the other, then the first event caused the other (If it rains, then I will cry, therefore every time it rains, I will cry)

EVIDENCE: Available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid

1. ARGUMENTATION: Identify the point or claim that the author is trying to prove

2. SPECIFICITY: Identify specific facts, data, statistics, and examples that support the point

3. RELEVANCE: Explains how the pieces of evidence are related to the claim

4 TYPES OF EVIDENCE

1. STATISTICAL: Strongest type, comes in the form of numbers, percentages, or surveys.

2. TESTIMONIAL: Can be experts, authorities, celebrities as eye witness accounts and judgment of experts, can be biased

3. ANECDOTAL: The use of personal experiences as evidence, makes the topic feel “real” to the audience

4. ANALOGICAL: Information is scarce. Healthy living is like getting a makeover.

PLAY: A story that is meant to be acted out on stage for an audience

ONE-ACT-PLAY: Uses scripts like full-length plays, it has several acts and scenes, completed in under 30 minutes, focuses on one situation and only a few characters are involved

DRAMATIC UNITIES:

1. UNITY OF TIME: Should take place over no more than a single day

2. UNITY OF PLACE: Play should exist in a single physical location

3. UNITY OF ACTION: Play should only have one principal action and should have a beginning, middle, and end

PLOT OF THE PLAY:

1. EXPOSITION: Introduces characters, setting, and situation

2. COMPLICATION: Height of tension, and suspense

3. CLIMAX: Height of action

4. DENOUEMENT: (meaning “culminating”) Ending or resolution

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Follows a script, limited characters, realism in dialogues

2. STAGE DIRECTIONS: Instructions in a play for technical aspects of the production purpose of stage directions

3. SETTING: Time of day, location, and description, must properly design the set where the scenes take place

4. COSTUME AND APPEARANCE

5. EMOTION AND PERFORMANCE: Parenthetical words that allow writers to give characters emotion in their words

6. MOVEMENT: Describes using specific words how the actors should move throughout the scene.