Psychology Notes

Introduction to Psychology

Origin and Definition

  • The term "psychology" comes from the Greek words:
    • "psyche" meaning mind.
    • "logos" meaning study or knowledge.
  • Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Course Topics

  • Development – How did you develop?
  • Memory – How does your memory work?
  • Psychological problems – How would psychological problems affect you?
  • The brain and neuropsychology – How does your brain affect you?
  • Social influence – How do others affect you?

Topic: Development

  • Early brain development.
  • The role of education and intelligence:
    • Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and its four stages.
  • The effects of learning on development:
    • Carol Dweck’s mindset theory.
    • Daniel Willingham’s learning theory.
Key Studies
  • Piaget and Inhelder (1956) Three mountains task: aims, procedures, findings (results and conclusions), strengths, and weaknesses.
  • Gunderson et al. (2013) Parent Praise to 1-to 3-Year-Olds Predicts Children's Motivational Frameworks 5 Years Issues.
Issues and Debates
  • Morality issues in psychology and the individual.
    • The terms ‘morality’ and ‘morals’.
    • Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages of morality.

The Brain: Structure, Functions, and Development

Learning Objectives
  • Identify the areas of the brain and explain their functions and early brain development.
  • Describe the three sections of the brain.
  • Explain early brain development.
  • Demonstrate the different lobes of the brain.
Early Brain Development
  • Early brain development starts around four weeks of pregnancy.
  • A tube develops in the brain, which is split into three sections:
    • The Forebrain.
    • The Midbrain.
    • The Hindbrain.
The Brain
  • The brain is the most complex organ in our body.
  • It controls our thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, and basically every process that regulates our body.

Brain Sections and Functions

  • Forebrain:
    • The largest part of the brain.
    • Contains the brain's hemispheres.
    • Contains structures responsible for higher-order thinking.
  • Midbrain:
    • Controls sensory information and simple responses.
    • Forms part of the central nervous system.
  • Hindbrain:
    • Controls basic biological functions.
    • Contains the medulla oblongata.
      • The medulla controls automatic responses such as breathing.
    • Contains the cerebellum.
      • The cerebellum controls muscle activity.

Brain Development in the Womb

  • 3-4 weeks:
    • The brain is responsible for higher-order functions such as thinking and problem-solving.
    • Linked to sensory information, sleep, and basic movements.
    • Linked to the spinal cord.
    • Reptilian brain controls basic functions such as heart rate, coordination, and facial expressions.
  • 5 weeks:
    • The forebrain and hindbrain have both divided into a further two cavities (parts).
    • The midbrain does not divide.
  • 6 weeks:
    • The cerebellum (‘little brain’) is visible, linked to movement and emotional responses (e.g., fear) and processing sensory information.
  • 11 weeks:
    • The forebrain is the biggest part of the brain.
  • 20 weeks:
    • The medulla has formed, responsible for involuntary responses such as sneezing, blood pressure, and heart rate.

Overview of the Brain

  • Cerebral Hemispheres:
    • The brain is divided into two sides, called hemispheres: the left and the right hemispheres.
    • The corpus callosum joins the two hemispheres, allowing them to communicate with each other.

Hemispheric Lateralization

  • The human brain is divided into two hemispheres - left and right hemispheres.
  • Lateralization of brain function means that there are specific mental processes that are mainly associated with one side or the other.
Contralateral vs. Ipsilateral
  • With functions like movement, the left hemisphere controls right-side functions and vice-versa.
  • Certain processes (e.g., movement and sensation), the left brain controls the right side of the body. This is known as contralateral.
  • However, for example, where the left brain processes the left side (e.g., 20% of vision), this is known as Ipsilateral.
  • The left hemisphere communicates with your right hand.
  • The right hemisphere communicates with your left hand.

Surface of the Cerebrum

  • Gyri (ridges) and Sulci (valleys) create the folded appearance on the surface of the brain.
  • This design maximizes the total surface area within a limited space.
  • Most of the active processing (especially senses) occurs on the surface of the brain.

Lobes of the Brain

  • Frontal Lobe:
    • Problem-solving.
    • Emotional traits.
    • Reasoning (judgment).
    • Speaking.
    • Voluntary motor activity.
  • Parietal Lobe:
    • Knowing right from left.
    • Sensation.
    • Reading.
    • Body orientation.
  • Temporal Lobe:
    • Understanding language.
    • Behavior.
    • Memory.
    • Hearing.
  • Occipital Lobe:
    • Vision.
    • Color perception.
  • Brain Stem:
    • Breathing.
    • Body temperature.
    • Digestion.
    • Alertness/sleep.
    • Swallowing.
  • Cerebellum:
    • Balance.
    • Coordination and control of voluntary movement.
    • Fine muscle control.

Neurons and Synapses

  • Neurons (nerve cells) are the brain’s electro-chemical messengers.
  • An electric charge travels down the body (axon) of the neuron.
  • This charge activates a chemical (neurotransmitter) held in a vesicle.
  • The chemical is propelled across the synaptic gap (space between neurones) to a receptor in the next neuron (neuronal network).
  • Here the chemical ionizes and produces a new chemical charge in the host neuron, and this process continues along the network.