History Of Architecture
Prehistoric vs. Historic
Scholars define prehistory as events that occurred before the existence of written records in a given culture or society. History refers to the time period after the invention of written records in a given culture or society.
Pre-Historic Architecture
- It is estimated that the written language started in Mesopotamia in 3,700 BCE.
- In Egypt, it would be in 3200 BCE.
- In Australia, it would be in 1788 AD (Anno Domini, Latin word for the year of the lord).
- In Papua New Guinea, it would be in the 1900s.
- Meanwhile in the Philippines the written language arrived during the Madjapahit and Sri-Vishayan Empires of India. (These two are considered as influencing factors to the history of these countries).
- Prehistoric period ceased when the roman expanded in the 50 AD under the leadership of Emperor Claudius.
- Roman Empire is the main reason why most European language are Latin based.
- In China, it ended in 2100 and started the Chinese language based on characters.
- Prehistoric is usually associated with the stone age.
“Human history as noted is divided basically into how man differed in their behaviour with respect to is reaction to the natural environment.”
Stone Age
Palaeolithic Period
o Old Stone Age, when homo habilis started using stone tools and discovered fire.
o Started 700,000 years ago, man during this period lived in caves and build temporary structures (in cases they hunt far from their home caves).
o Wooden shacks on trees are made to protect man from preying predators.
o Usually, caves have a natural temperature of 23⁰ centigrade making it ideal for human habitation.
Mesolithic Period
o Middle stone age, when agriculture started along with fishing 20,000 years ago.
o Man started inventing tools, farm implements, building stones and, masonry houses.
o Dwellings were more permanent because of the continuity of development in this era.
o It was during this time when the Ice Age started melting – possibility of the Great Flood of Noah from – 120 meters to present Zero (0) level.
o At present Jericho is about 260 meters below sea level (from Google earth) and the Dead Sea is 450 meters below sea level.
Neolithic Period
o New Stone Age, started the development of human settlements and the cultivation of staple crops.
o 10,000 years ago, civilization began organizing and having religious activities that started building major structures.
Chalcolithic
o Copper Age, an era when metallurgy started with the processing of pure copper and possibly gold since the two ores are similar.
o Early Chalcolithic started in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley.
o It was internal growth and not influenced by other civilization.
o Babylon was said to be founded by Nimrod (great hunter) a great grandson of Noah. This period started about 7,000 years ago.
Beginning
- Bronze Age
o Adding tin to copper make bronze stronger
o It was also the period the written language started in Mesopotamia (Cuneiform) then in Egypt (Hieroglyphs)
o 5,000 years ago, Abraham came hence the reason why the scriptures were recorded although it was said it was moses and recorded the first 5 books of bible.
- Iron Age
o Time when iron was used as the stronger metal for weapons.
o Iron metal working techniques during this period where slow to progress making the nation with better technique rule the world like the Roman Empire.
o It was said that the Vikings of Norway got their sword making techniques from Asia Minor which made them lords of the Northern Atlantic region after the fall of the Roman Empire.
HISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
- Jericho (8000- 7000 BC)
o Jericho (Palestine) is the earliest known human settlements found by archaeologist where groups of mud bricks houses in oval stone foundations are found at around 8000 BC.
o Year 7500 BC, signs of stone fortifications where also found meaning there is a sign of group invasion from other settlements (even had a moat around the fortification).
o Lasted up to 7000 BC when it was abandoned and another civilization settled on it.
o Maybe this later settlement was the one seen by Joshua whom Moses sent to spy on Canaan, the promise land.
o It is said to be that Jericho has one of the best constructed stone fortification in ancient times (archaeological findings). Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- Catal Huyuk, Turkey (7000-5700 BC)
o A settlement without a dominant street pattern since houses of mud bricks where built with their thick walls connected and access to houses is through the roof where some have small clerestory windows. These thick walls serves as linkages or paths on top of it. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- Stonehenge, Wiltshire, Salisbury Plains, England (Cromlech) 3000 BC
- Carnac, Brittany, France (menhirs)
STRUCTURES
- Dolmen
o two or more upright stone monoliths that together supports a horizontal stone slab on top. Majority of dolmen found are located in Korea.
- Menhirs
- Passage Grave
o dominant megalithic tomb type having a long dark passage and a large circular grave built with stones using corbelled vaulting and often covered on top with earth where foliage sometimes hid it from view.
- Cromlechs
o a type of dolmen and menhirs grouped together forming a circle or concentric circles like the Stonehenge of England. The English cromlech has the center of the facility towards sunrise at summer solstice and sunset at winter solstice. It seems to show a meaning i.e. to rejoice for the coming hope of summers’ fruits/food and prepare for the gloomy despair of the winter months.
MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE
- Pre-historic condition
o The scale of society in the Mesolithic age was small. Natufian culture lived in groups of 3 - 4 household or families with no marked difference in status (no chieftain/ political ranks) and wealth. Basically, active in barter especially salt in exchange for food or stone tools. Mostly life was sustained by hunting or food gathering/picking. Houses were either windbreak shelters near caves or round small mud huts. Initially most culture are nomads in search of food source but gradually developed into groupings due to cooperative protection from wild animals and enemy groups.
o Neolithic period marked the beginnings of small scale farming and thereby settlements up to fifty or more families (beginning of small towns). Shrine like buildings and possibly temples started to flourish during this period (start of organized religion). Agriculture, barter and religion seem to have started the growth of towns.
- Societal condition
o Basic livelihood of the Mesopotamian
§ Mesopotamian culture (biblical stories said that Nimrod, great grandson of Noah/ grandson of Ham, established Babylonia and built the Tower of Babel) started in the Cities of Ur (where according to the bible Abraham came from) and Sumer along the banks of the Euphrates river. The annual flooding of the banks of the Euphrates fertilize the soil that gave rise to large scale farming and as a result the harvest of grains in excess thereby creating surplus goods used for bartering for other needed commodities from different regions. This started a barter trading economic system. Parallel to the Euphrates is the Tigris river development of cities and towns. Mesopotamia comes from the Greek words mesos (between) and potamos (river), the rivers being the Euphrates and the Tigris.
Note: Noah’s sons settled in different places, Japeth north of Mediterranean seas toward Spain, Rhodes and Crete. Ham’s offsprings went mostly south of Mediterranean towards Libya and Egypt, while Shem remained in Canaan known as the Semites (Hebrew nation). The Jewish nation came from the tribes of Judah.
§ Agricultural communities developed into cities where trading of goods and services started. The Mesopotamian was able to control floods in the cities by developing raised platforms where important community structures stand like temples, palaces and markets. They also built strong walls for town security and defense. The basic building materials were mud bricks along river towns and later stones in highlands of Persia.
§ Political system revolves around kings who are God representative on earth (theocratic socialism) and steward of his earthly treasures. Religious priest therefore wields power next to kings. Sargon and Hammurabi among the mightiest of kings. The Mesopotamian believe in so many gods. Cuneiform writings by the Mesopotamian started recorded history is said to be this civilizations greatest contribution to the modern world and the bible (torah) being written.
- Significant structures; source History of Architecture by Bannister Fletcher
o Ziggurats of Urnammu, page 72
o Palace of Sargon 80
- Evolution of houses: page 32
o Imiris Gora,
o Khirokitia,
o Tell Hassuna
- Ornaments:
o winged human headed lion compare to sphinx
Glossary
- Arcuated
o construction method using the arch as main support
- Corbelled arch
o a false arch formed from the opening in a mass of masonry bricks or stone by removing some pieces of masonry brick or stone to form an opening
- Cuneiform writing
o wedge shaped writing of the Mesopotamian
- Ziggurat
o temple with corners or angles oriented to the cardinal points built as a step pyramid construction of mud bricks.
- Important contributions of Mesopotamia
o Writing – cuneiform (started written history)
o Organised agriculture
o Urban or town planning & development
o Government structure (theocratic/monarchical)
o Construction technology
o Flood control through raised platform
o Corbelled arch
o Burnt or fired brick and mud brick masonry
Eras
- Sumerians. 3500 - 2000 BCE
o No known king except Biblical Nimrod during this period also called as the Bronze Age. It is said that extensive mining of copper and tin, to make bronze, caused the desertification of the once forested region.
§ Structures - Ziggurat at Ur 2100 BCE (Birthplace of Abraham)
- Assyrians. 1000 – 600 BCE
o Sargon and Hammurabi are the most famous kings of this era. This was also the start of iron age. War weapons were deadlier.
§ Structures – Citadel of Sargon, Khorsabad 720 BCE
- Neo-Babylonians. 575 - 539 BCE
o Nebuchadnezzar overthrew the Assyrians and conquered much of Palestine and Egypt. He brought the Jews and Daniel to Babylon during this period. The empire got so rich with the spoils of war that he was able to build the hanging gardens of Babylon. His son reigned after him for a short time because he did not heed Daniel’s warning. Mene mene tekel upharsin.
§ Structures – Ishtar Gate, Babylon 575 BCE
- Persians 539 – 331 BCE
o Cyrus, the Mede, conquered Babylon and establish Persepolis as his capital.
§ Structures – Royal Palace at Persepolis 520 – 460 BCE
Prehistoric Dwellings
- Caves
o Caves has an average temperature of 23˚ C. At that temperature man as well as other creatures can survive even the harsh winter.
- Mud huts
o Mud huts in a way imitates the temperature that a cave could give since it is constructed of earthen materials. This type of structure was built by people who organized to settle in one place. Settlements functions to serve communities in dealing with the environs together – protection, socialization, exchange of goods and health.
- Lean-to
o Lean-to’s normally serve as wind break for most nomad people, especially hunters.
- Igloo huts
o Igloo huts, in Alaska by the Inuits, are made of snow partly turns to ice as the inside is warmed by fire. It is also a windbreak since in cold places. It is the wind that brings the freezing temperature.
- Tree houses
o In the tropical environment, the house built atop trees is very common. This is to protect the occupants from wild animals, insects and ground humidity.
- Tents/tepees
o Common to desert and grassland regions where people often transfer from one place to another. Usually this structures are used by animal herders or shepherds.