BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL ETHICS
B. BIBLICAL ETHICS
1. Ethics of the Old Covenant Community
Ethics of the New Covenant Community.
The Hebrew people have a unique understanding of history. Unlike the Greek concept of history as a cycle of recurring events, the Hebrews believed that history has a beginning and an end. It is His Story, God’s Story. It is an arena in which God speaks to man and make known his will for them. God spoke to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,. Moses, David, the prophets and many others.
History
-is arena in which God speaks his message and does his mighty acts of redemption.
is a stage in which the drama of life is acted out by God as the principal actor and man the re-actor. In history God made a covenant with man.
When we look at the world as “history,” time appears to be linear and events are characterized by “once-for-all-ness.” This is part of the world view of the Biblical writers. The first is symbolized by a circle, the second by a straight line. Dr. Douglas J. Elwood asks: “Are the two views incompatible?” He quotes for an answer Dr. Kosuke Koyama, a Japanese theologian, from his book, Waterbuffalo Theology.
Koyama suggests a new model: an ascending spiral which combines in itself the circle and the line symbolizing both regularity and direction. Under this symbol historical time is circular in one sense and linear in another sense. We “must hold both history and nature to be equally important,” Koyama concludes.
With this view of history Christians believe that the Bible is a continuous and full record of God’s mighty acts in the history of the Hebrews or Jewish people. It is a record of what God has done for men and of what responses men have made to God. It is in a real sense the WORD OF GOD because it speaks to men today. The Bible, therefore, is a very fundamental source of the discipline of Christian Ethics. H. Richard Niebhur says: “The Bible has always been and will doubtless remain the chief source book for the study of Christian Ethics.” E. Clinton Gardner says: “It is equally certain that the Old Testament has always been and will remain the one and most indispensable guide for the study of the New Testament.”
The New Testament is the fulfillment of the Old Testament. The promises of God in the Old Testament are fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ. Thus, these covenants are the two basic and continuous records of God’s dramatic revelation in history. These are indeed a wide variety of conceptions of God and of moral standards reflected in the 66 books of the Bible. The unity is presupposed in the New Testament when Jesus said in the Sermon of the Mount: “Think not that I have come to abolish the law and the prophets; I have come not to abolish them but to fulfill them” (Matt. 5:17).
1. ETHICS OF THE OLD COVENANT COMMUNITY
The ethics of this community begins with a covenant. This is a personal relationship and mutual agreement between God and man. In Genesis, it is recorded that God made a covenant with all of mankind through Noah. (Gen. 9:8-12ff). God also made a covenant with the Hebrew people through Abram. (Gen. 12, 15, 17).
The covenant in the Old Testament shapes the religious and moral beliefs of the Israelites, portraying God as personal and the Israelites as chosen to spread His message. It establishes moral obligations and demands obedience from the Israelites, promising salvation and divine judgment based on their adherence to the covenant. Failure to fulfill their part in the covenant results in punishment by God.
Covenant stands for man’s relationship to God and his obedience to God’s will. The external signs of the covenants are:
(1) Circumcision of Abraham’s descendants;
(2) Obedience to God’s commandments (laws)
(3) Telling forth of God’s message to others;
(4) Giving of land to Israel by God;
(5) Making of Abraham father of many;
(6) Protection given to Israel by God
THE COVENANT AND THE LAW (Moses’ Ethical Monotheism)
The Israelite law is accordingly a Covenant law. It rests upon an understanding of the meaning of life in the community. The meaning of Israel’s life is provided by the saving action of God in her midst. God called and saved Israel for a purpose (Gen. 12:3). Israel was a covenant community, so her laws are expressions of the demands of the covenant relationship
These laws are identified in the Old Testament:
1. Covenant Code (Exodus 20:22-23:33).
Believed to be an earliest piece of Hebrew legislation formulated in the 9th century B. C. This expresses a blending of moral and religious consideration. It emphasizes adoration and gratitude with ceremonial observance. In brief, faith and ethics are integrated.
2. Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 12-26)
Believed to be a revision and expansion of the Covenant code (in the 7th century B. C. in order to fit it to the needs of the new day). This expresses both ritualistic and humanitarian considerations. Here are injunctions to imageless worship, provisions for altar sacrifices and assurance of divine presence. In brief, here is a blend of praying and doing.
3. Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26)
Believed to have been developed in the 6th century B. C. This highly emphasizes the holiness of Yahweh. Yahweh is holy, so he is righteous. Therefore, his people must be righteous as well as ceremonially pure. Thus, Leviticus 19:2 referred to as the highest development of ethics in the O.T. begins: “You shall be holy, for I, the Lord your God, am holy” (of Lev. 20:26).
4. Decalogue (Exodus 20:1-21)
God has acted to save, and he now calls this act to remembrance as the presupposition of the commandments to follow. The commandments are to be understood as the stipulations of the covenant relationship. God commands and Israel is to obey. In brief, this code emphasizes the integration of religion and ethics.
God is considered the author of the laws and Moses was the mediator (or law-giver). The provisions of the laws were requirements of duty to God. God has chosen the Israelites to be His people and He demands absolute obedience and worship from them. God is only one and He is good.
THE COVENANT AND PROPHECY ( Prophet’s Radical Monotheism)
Prophets were spokesmen of God. They spoke the message of God to His people in their actual life situations. The prophets were primarily religious and only secondarily ethical teachers. “Their insistence upon right conduct was religious in its origin, and at the root was never anything else than religious” (Snaith). “Their moral teaching was derived from their understanding of God, who had revealed Himself to them as a righteous God, rather than from some rationalistic theory of virtue and the highest good for man, or some conception of universal human equality, solidarity, and brotherhood” (Gardner).
The prophets emphasized radical monotheism. This is to say that the good and the righteous God absolutely demands of all practice justice, righteousness, love, humility and the like in their daily relationship (Amos 5:21-24; Micah 3:9-12). The prophets were harbingers of the message of God to the current situations, telling forth God’s will and purpose for men. They never spoke in abstraction but concrete terms and situations. They fought against oppressors whether they be kings or ordinary citizens. They denounced injustices and announced the judgement of God. They fought for the poor, the widows, the orphans and the oppressed. Then they made accusations against oppressors and violators, they named singly to identify them.
From this fact, comes the prophetic principle of Christianity (Protestant principle of prophetic protest)—that is, principle of critical analysis of the self and of others in the light of God’s will. It is the principle which, says, “Nothing on this earth is so sacred to be above objective criticism and judgement of God.”
The prophet’s message was based upon the assumption of the covenant relationship. The prophet’s God was the God of the covenant, whose nature reveals the ultimate norm by which all human ideals and standards of conduct are being judged. The prophet’s understanding of sin is primarily disobedience to God, and not just maladjustment or failure to follow some human standards. Sin is rebellion against God. The prophets themselves were constantly reminding the Israelites that they were a covenant people, hence they have a covenant obligation to keep.
THE COVENANT AND JUDAISM
Judaism was the religion of the Jews after their Babylonian Captivity. Because of their failure to follow their covenant obligation they were punished by God by allowing their enemies to bring them into captivity. But God, being merciful God, gave them a second chance. They were allowed to return to their homeland Judah through the help of a benevolent Persian King, Cyrus the Great.
Ezra and Nehemiah, the leaders of the reconstruction period were determined to keep their covenant obligation very religiously. Nehemiah saw to it that the city walls were rebuilt so that the people will have protection against their various enemies. Ezra was determined to rebuild a strong temple and religious life for his people. Out of his efforts was born Judaism, a religion characterized by a strict observance of circumcision, Sabbath and dietary laws. The Pentateuch was established as the fundamental law of the land. Marriage laws designed to purify the Jewish race were established. Mixed marriages were discouraged. Other laws were instituted. All laws were strictly enforced to ensure the approval of God and usher in His kingdom. In short, Judaism turned into legalism.
To sum up, the morality (ethics) of the Old Covenant Community may be characterized as:
a. God-centered (theocentric). This means that God is the source of the highest good and all moral requirements. The Hebrew religion was “shot through with an ethical morality.” Morality comes from God.
b. Mandatory. Its tone is imperative. It begins with reminding the Israelites that their duties stemmed out of a covenant relationship with God, and ends up with commanding men to do their duties.
c. Persons concerned. Primarily concerned with persons and community of persons, rather than, with abstract ideals and virtues. Concerned with actions or deeds which affect the neighbors.
d. Equalitarian. It is equalitarian in its estimate of human worth. It recognizes the fundamental equality among men. All, regardless of social status, must be cared for and treated with justice and mercy (see Holiness Code – Lev. 25:10, 23-28).
e. Salvation-oriented. Salvation means redemption from the evils of present life, rather than aspiration after the highest good. Salvation means enjoyment of material possessions and with family and offspring. It was very important for the Hebrew person to have offsprings for posterity’s sake.
Furthermore, the Hebrew morality was a national or group morality. The whole nation was responsible to keep the covenant obligation. When an individual violated a law the whole nation felt responsible for it.
The law and prophecy represented justice, love, mercy, truth, and righteousness in daily life. They signified the covenantal obligations of the Hebrew community. When the Old Covenant failed, a new one was established, as prophesied by Jeremiah, emphasizing personal responsibility. Jesus established the New Covenant community, leading to a focus on the ethics of this new community.
2. THE ETHICS OF THE NEW COVENANT COMMUNITY
(A) Ethics of the Kingdom of God (Jesus)
The term “Kingdom of God” is not found in the Old Testament, but the idea itself is found in many expressions such as kingship of Yahweh (divine kingship), rule of God (theocracy), holy commonwealth, that is the reign of Monarchs who were representatives of God, and ecclesiastical rule, the rule of a priest who represents God.
The kingdom of God is conceived in the Old Testament in three different ways (Gardner):
(a) Assumption that God is already king, for he created the world and governs it with righteousness;
(b) God’s kingship is present in a special way in the lives of those who do his will;
(c) Kingship of Yahweh is pictured as future reign in which his rule will be completely manifest over all earth.
So, the very idea of “Kingdom of God” was familiar to Jesus and his contemporaries. The popular misconceptions of the kingdom in Jesus’ time were: It is a military rule, political independence, an economic prosperity, wholly futuristic and other worldly, and exclusively for Israel. Jesus tried to correct these misconceptions. Thus, the “Kingdom of God” concept became central in his teachings.
Jesus taught that the Kingdom of God is:
(a) A sovereign, righteous, active rule of God in the hearts of men and in a redeemed society. It is both local and universal in scope.
(b) A precious power in human life as well as a future reality. It is already here and yet it is still to come.
(c) A precious gift of God to be sought above everything else in life. The preciousness of the Kingdom of God is likened to a hidden treasure.
(d) A good news of God’s reconciling, forgiving and redeeming love stress on divine acceptance which God has already extended to all persons prior to their repentance. It’s trusting so fully in God’s love as to “accept the fact that we are accepted” even though we know we are unacceptable.
Jesus challenged men and women to get involved in the continuous revolutionary activity of God toward radical renewal and new life for the individual, for society, for the world and the entire creation. Hence, he admonished them for:
(a) Repentance. It means “to turn away from sin and return to God” – a renewed attitude of the wrong-doer toward God and fellowmen. It goes beyond acts of penitence to a redirection of one’s life toward God and neighbor, and beyond human powers. It’s no longer a mere demand nor even a condition, rather, a real possibility—“ a response no longer to an impersonal Law but to the Divine Person who is reconciling and accepting Father.”
(b) Faith. It’s not the acceptance of ideas or dogmas about God nor merely an assent to God’s action and nature. Rather, the recognition of the living God and trust in his saving act as revealed in Jesus as the Christ. It is confidence in God’s power and dependence in his grace.
(c) Obedience. It’s “hearing” or “listening” to God’s word and action-man’s “repentance-faith” response to God’s revelation. Also, it’s not the submission of the will to laws: but life lived in obedience to the Spirit. It means that acceptance of the kingdom is an incessant call to radical change of the “heart” towards righteousness and faithfulness.
The belief that God is the sovereign, active ruler of the world and of one’s life greatly determines one’s daily conduct. The idea that the Kingdom of God is a sovereign reign in the heart of a person makes religion and ethics inseparable and integrated. This is the reason why an understanding of his ethics is important.
The ethical demands of the Kingdom of God may be stated as follows:
(1) Demand of Love
Love God with all your heart, mind, soul, and strength (Mt. 22:37)
Love your neighbor as yourself (Mt. 22:39)
Loving neighbor is loving God (I Jn. 4:20)
Criteria for loving neighbor is self-love
Love your enemy (Mt. 5:46-47)
Christian love forgives and loves the enemy
(2) Demand for Perfection.
Jesus commands: "You must be perfect as your heavenly father is perfect" (Mt. 5:48)
Perfection means fitting into God's purpose (teleios from telos)
Ultimate purpose in life: to love and serve God above all
Perfection is a life of single-minded devotion to God
Imperfection is a life with no loyalty to God, leading to errors
(3) Demand for Inward Morality.
Motive is important in morality
What is in one's mind is as crucial as external actions
Anger is the root of murder
Being angry is equivalent to murder
Jesus emphasizes internal morality over external actions
Old Covenant vs. Jesus' teachings on adultery and murder
(4) Demand for the Supremacy of Spiritual Values.
Demand for supremacy of spiritual values
Kingdom of God and God's righteousness
Values: love, justice, mercy, kindness, humility
"Weightiest matters" of the law
Endure the test of time
(5) Demand for Respect of Man’s Worth and Dignity.
Jesus emphasizes the value of individuals over institutions
Jesus defends the dignity of a woman accused of adultery
Jesus rebukes those who mistreated the woman
The statement "The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath" highlights human worth
Jesus challenges the self-righteous attitudes of the accusers
(6) Demand for being concerned with the present as well as the future life.
Kingdom of God: Present & future reality
Christians in the world, not of the world
Pay attention to present & future life
Concerned with social, political, economic aspects
Impact on personal life
Spiritual outlook: existential & eschatological
Balance: "this worldly" & "other-worldly"
Incarnational involvement in everyday affairs
Holy worldliness: following Jesus' way of life
To sum up, the ethics of the Kingdom of God may be characterized as follows:
(1) Integration of religion and ethics. To love God is inseparable from loving a person. To love a person is a concrete expression of one’s love for God.
(2) Unity of motive and action. The Christian life should not be split-level. No deceit. One’s action must duly express one’s motive and vice-versa. The inner attitude must be seen in our outer life. The Christian openness and maturity.
(3) Respect for individual person’s dignity and worth more than for group tradition and institutions. The individual person is a “child of God” not just an expendable commodity of the group. In brief, this is unity of individual and society with the individual as center of society.
(4) Centrality of the Kingdom of God. This means unity of values with the Kingdom of God as the controlling principle. In short, the spiritual values are as central as the other values clustering around them.
(B) Ethics of the New Creation (St. Paul)
Man, originally created as a free citizen of the Kingdom of God, has deviated from his true nature due to the influence of sin. This deviation is evident in various aspects of human behavior such as unnatural conduct, self-assertion, and inhumanity. The conflict between conscience and desires, along with the struggle to obey moral imperatives, highlights man's moral dilemma. Despite knowing what is right, man finds himself unable to act accordingly, leading to a sense of helplessness.
Man, originally created as a free citizen of the Kingdom of God, has fallen into sin, leading to a moral dilemma where he knows what is right but cannot do it. Sin is a rebellion against God's rule, with all men powerless to overcome it on their own. Jesus Christ is the only solution to this captivity to sin, offering redemption and transformation to those who trust in Him, turning rebellion into submission and leading to a radical change in their lives.
Faith in Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior is the starting point of this life of transformation. A radical change in the attitude of a person who trusts Jesus Christ takes place. A person who is in Christ is no longer rebellious but submissive to the will of God. His life is characterized by:
(1) Freedom in Christ (Gal. 5:1, 13)
It means liberation from the wrath of God or fearful conscience because now he is reconciled with God; from the fear of death and power of sin because ha has overcome them in and through the power of Jesus Christ; from ceremonial laws such as Sabbath, Circumcision and Dietary because Christ’s sacrifice on the cross was sufficient to meet all ceremonial requirements.
(2) Freedom to be responsible (Gal. 5:1-25; Rom.11:13-24)
This means responsibility to God, which includes believing in God, active loyalty to Jesus Christ, imitation of Christ’s discipleship, and being baptized into the “Body of Christ,” and being active participant in Church life.
Such responsible freedom also extends to neighbors (all people) by the principle of “faith working in love” a Christian can serve his fellowmen (neighbors) in various ways (Rom. 13:8-10), such as the following:
a) Preaching the good news of salvation (kerygma);
b) Serving the widows, orphans, and the poor people as a whole (diakonia);
c) Building a fellowship among the church members between them and the larger community (koinonia);
d) Teaching all men the Word of God or nurturing church people in the tenets of the Christian faith (didache).
Finally, this responsible freedom also means a responsibility to the society at large which includes respect for Kings or emperors; paying taxes. In brief, a sense of duty as a law abiding citizen (Rom. 12:14-13:7; I Thess. 5:15).
(3) Transformation of the self (2 Cor. 5:17)
A “dying and rising” of the self which involves a complete inner change of the fundamental attitudes of a person toward God, his world, his neighbors and his own self. A person who “dies and rises” in Christ has a new outline in life. “He is a new creature; the old has passed away, behold, the new life come.”
To recapitulate, the “Ethics of the New Creation” may be characterized as follows:
(1) It is Christ-centered (Christo-centric). Justification before God is by faith in Christ and not by works of men (Rom. 1:17; 3:20; 5:1 ). This fact points out the inadequacy of legalism. New life comes from Christ. The new morality is an imitation of the life of Christ (Gal. 2:20).
(2) It is primarily an ethics of redemption and transformation. The good life is one that is redeemed, forgiven, radically changed and empowered for righteous living, or living a new life in Christ (Gal. 2:20-21). To be good is to bear the fruits of the Holy Spirit such as joy, love, peace, hope, humility, kindness and the like.
(3) It is also an ethics of responsible fellowship in the living “body of Christ”, which is the church. There are many members of this body of Christ, but each member is as important as the others, despite their differences in gifts and functions.
To Paul, the moral dilemma is not the lack of knowledge but the lack of the will for he says , “I can will what is right.” But to know what is good and to will what is right , still is unable to do is terrible. He cannot understand his actions, but adds saying, “it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me.” Despite this problem every member now obsessed for all goodness must engage in active fellowship and responsible participation in the life of the church (I Cor. 12:24-31).
C. THEOLOGICAL ETHICS
1. Theological Ethics provides the discipline of Christian Ethics with theological postulates such as the following:
(a) The postulate of a good God who is thought of:
(1) He is thought as a Creator, the source of creative powers, he is the God of providential care, forgiving grace, self-giving love, genuine concern, and purposive existence for humankind and the entire creation. His creativity is beginningless and endless. He is best described as Father who is eternally Creator and Grace (Gen. 1:1, Rev. 22:21).
(2) He is thought of as a Redeemer, the source of redemptive powers. He is the God of reconciliation and restoration, as well as of reconstruction and reformation. He came to reconcile us and all the world to restore brokenness, to reconstruct society, and to reform human conduct, attitudes, values and ways of life—all for total salvation and wholeness upon himself. In this regard, God is best known as the Son, who had came to be born, lived among men, went about doing good, and died for them (Gal. 4:4; Jn 1:1, 14; Acts 10:38; Rom. 5:8).
(3) He is thought of as Judge and Counselor—
God as a God of justice, not distributive but redemptive
Emphasis on righteousness and goodness
Provides wise counsel, comfort, and inspiration
Convicts of wrong but inspires to overcome sins
Known as the Holy Spirit with judgment and comfort
Trinitarian view of God: Father, Son, Holy Spirit
Implication for Christian Ethics: creativity, correction, redemption
(b) The postulate of basically a good man and purposive life. `
(1) He is a created being, who possesses a physical body which is his essential creatureliness and continuity with nature. He has been shaped by nature and yet in turn he shapes nature and extends control over it. While finite and biological, there is something spiritual in him that is closely related to God who is infinite (Gen. 2:7; 1:26-27; Ps. 8:4-8).
(2) He is a fallen being, one who has inordinate self-love that leads him to rebel against his Creator. This is the basic structure of man’s being which has fallen into disorder, imbalance and alienation. In short, he is a sinner (Gen. 3-11; Rom. 3:23).
(3) He is a potential-saint—
Man possesses a "residum of original righteousness"
Awareness of fundamental alienation from God, others, world, and self
Capacity to return to his Maker
Realistic view of man in Christian Ethics
Man created in God's likeness with untapped possibilities
Man has limitations both physical and spiritual
Expectations should not be too high or lead to disappointments
Expect the best in individuals as they are basically good and purposive
(c) The postulate of basically a good and friendly world.
The world is created by a good God, making it good and friendly
Human world of interdependency and reciprocity
Sphere of God’s liberating and renewing activity
Designed for a purpose with man
Each individual has a chance to respond to God
Christian ethics: reflecting on God's nature and action
Reminder of stewardship and God's ownership
Ethical living in a favorable world
Opportunity for personal growth as a child of God
2. Theological Ethics also provides Christian Ethics with a perspective of the faith and an understanding for human conduct in a new depth end in a new light.
a. A theological perspective of the Christian faith.
Theology is the study which, through participation in and reflection upon a religious faith, seeks to express the content of this faith in the clearest and most coherent language available, according to Dr. John Macguarie. Its main task is the clarification of the Christian faith for intelligibility, consistency and coherence. Christian action unless illuminated by clear theological thinking and understanding would be aimless. In this manner, theology presupposes the sense of God’s presence, which is the crown of the religious life, “reaches over into the sphere of ethics and glorifies it.” Awareness of the divine presence is the determinative factor in any distinctively Christian understanding of ethics. Hence, theology provides Christian ethics with a perspective, a stance, a place to stand on.
b. A theological understanding for human conduct
Theology's connection to our lives is explained through faith, not just as belief but as an existential attitude. The duty of theology is to guide and express faith, impacting our quality of life. Understanding faith and its basis helps us express it in all aspects of life. Jesus emphasizes existential attitudes over behavior, showing how faith shapes conduct and selfhood. Conduct is closely tied to the formative power of faith.
The ethical teachings of Jesus and Paul emphasize continuity with natural law and the moral enlightenment brought by Christian revelation. Salvation is not achieved through self-sufficient moral efforts, but through embracing the Christian path, leading to moral renewal and fulfillment of human potential. The foundation of good moral conduct lies in the distinctive promise of the Judeo-Christian faith, encompassing virtues like prudence, justice, courage, self-control, faith, hope, and love, which enrich the moral life with new depth and dimension.
To sum up, Christian ethics is dependent on theology, on one side, for it needs to know the basis upon which it stands, and it also needs religious wisdom. On the other hand, it is interdependent of theology in its co-equal dependence upon secular wisdom. Its task is a worldly action and must evoke authentic side of human conduct. For this side of its responsibility, Christian ethics must call upon the whole range of worldly wisdom in order to act effectively and pursue its purpose to fulfillment. The theological movement is: stance, wisdom, action, fulfillment.