Development: Concept, Measurement, and Sustainability Notes

Pedagogical Objectives and Context of Development

• Multi-faceted Nature of Development: Development is not a singular concept but has many aspects. The primary objective is to understand that individuals hold different perspectives on what development entails.

• Indicators of Development: There is a need to identify common indicators to measure progress. These indicators move from intuitive personal situations to complex, macro-level analyses.

• Comparison of States and Countries: Development indicators are used to compare the progress of different geographical entities.

• Measuring Economic Development:

  • Income Method: The most common method of measuring development is through income.

  • Weaknesses of the Income Method: While useful, income alone is insufficient and has several weaknesses.

  • Need for Newer Indicators: Development must be viewed through quality of life and environmental sustainability.

• Key Technical Terms for Clarification:

  • Per Capita Income: Total income divided by total population.

  • Literacy Rate: The proportion of the literate population in the 7-and-above age group.

  • Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): The number of children that die before the age of one year as a proportion of $1,000$ live children born in that particular year.

  • Attendance Ratio (Net Attendance Ratio): Total number of children in the age group of $15-17$ years attending school as a percentage of the total number of children in that same age group.

  • Life Expectancy: The average expected length of life of a person at the time of birth.

  • Gross Enrolment Ratio: A measure used to determine the number of students enrolled in school at several different grade levels.

  • Human Development Index (HDI): A composite statistic used to rank countries by level of "human development."

  • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): A concept used to calculate Gross National Income (GNI) Per Capita so that every dollar can buy the same amount of goods and services in any country.

• Major Information Sources for Data:

  • Government of India: Economic Survey, Reports of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS), and Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Economy.

  • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Human Development Report (HDR).

  • World Bank: World Development Indicators.

The Nature of Development and Personal Aspirations

• Core Concepts of Development: The idea of progress involves aspirations and desires regarding how we want to live and what a country should be like.

• Essential Questions in Development:

  • What are the essential things we require?

  • Can life be better for all?

  • How should people live together?

  • Can there be more equality?

• Influences on Modern Life: The way we live today is heavily influenced by the past. We cannot desire change without being aware of history.

• Role of Politics: Hopes and possibilities for development are achieved in real life through a democratic political process.

Different People, Different Goals: Table 1.1 Analysis

• Landless Rural Labourers: Desire more days of work and better wages; quality education for children in local schools; absence of social discrimination; opportunities to become village leaders.

• Prosperous Farmers from Punjab: Desire high family income through high support prices for crops; availability of hardworking and cheap labourers; ability to settle children abroad.

• Rain-dependent Farmers: Seek reliable irrigation and better crop prices.

• Rural Woman from Land-owning Family: Desires economic security and social status.

• Urban Unemployed Youth: Seeks stable employment opportunities.

• Boy from Rich Urban Family: Desires high-quality education and leisure.

• Girl from Rich Urban Family: Desires as much freedom and opportunity as her brother; expects her brother to share in household work; desires to pursue studies abroad.

• Adivasi from Narmada Valley: Desires protection of land and livelihood, opposing large-scale displacement.

Conflicting Developmental Goals

• Subjectivity of Development: What is development for one person may not be development for another. It may even be destructive for the other.

• Example of Conflict (Industrialists vs. Tribals):

  • Industrialists may want more dams to generate electricity.

  • Dams submerge land and disrupt the lives of displaced people (e.g., tribals).

  • Tribals may resent large dams and prefer small check dams or tanks for irrigation.

• Example of Domestic Conflict: A girl may desire freedom equal to her brother and his participation in housework, which the brother may resent.

Income and Non-Material Goals

• Material Desires: People seek regular work, better wages, and decent prices for their products to increase income.

• Non-Material Desires:

  • Equal treatment.

  • Freedom.

  • Security.

  • Respect from others.

  • Absence of discrimination.

• Relative Importance: In some cases, non-material goals are more important than income or consumption because material goods are not all one needs to live well.

• Measurability: Many things that mean a lot to our lives (like friendship) are not easily measured but remain essential. It is wrong to conclude that what cannot be measured is not important.

Factors in Job Selection and Quality of Life

• Decision Criteria: When considering a job in a far-off place, individuals weigh factors beyond income:

  • Facilities for the family.

  • Working atmosphere.

  • Opportunities to learn.

• Trade-offs between Security and Pay:

  • Job A: Less pay but regular employment and high sense of security.

  • Job B: High pay but no job security and no time for family (reducing freedom and security).

• Gender and Development: Paid work increases a woman's dignity in the household and society. However, if there is respect for women, there is more sharing of housework and greater acceptance of women working outside.

National Development and Comparison Criteria

• Defining National Development: It involves deciding on a fair and just path for all and determining if a policy benefits a large number of people or only a small group.

• Comparison of Students (Analogy): Students are compared based on the purpose (sports, debate, music). While we take important characteristics (height, health, talent), for all-round progress, we look at varied traits like friendliness, creativity, or marks.

• Comparison of Countries via Income: Income is considered a primary attribute because more income allows for more goods and services that humans need.

Average Income and Per Capita Income

• Total Income: The sum of the income of all residents of a country.

• Calculation of Average Income:     $\text{Average Income} = \frac{\text{Total Income of the Country}}{\text{Total Population}}$

• World Bank Classification (2024):

  • High Income / Rich Countries: Per capita income of $US\,66,500$ per annum and above.

  • Low-Income Countries: Per capita income of $US\,2,300$ or less.

  • India's Status: Classified as a low middle-income country with a per capita income of approximately $US\,11,000$ per annum in 2024.

  • Developed Countries: Generally includes rich countries, excluding those in the Middle East and certain small countries.

Limitations of Average Income (Table 1.2)

• Hiding Disparities: Averages do not show how income is distributed.

• Comparison of Country A and B (Hypothetical):

  • Country A: Five citizens with incomes of $9500, 10500, 9800, 10000, 10200$. The distribution is equitable.

  • Country B: Five citizens with incomes of $500, 500, 500, 500, 48000$. Most are poor, one is extremely rich.

  • Conclusion: Even if average incomes are identical, Country A is preferred due to a more equitable distribution.

State-Level Comparison in India (Tables 1.3 & 1.4)

• Per Capita Income (2023-24):

  • Haryana: $Rs\,3,25,759$

  • Kerala: $Rs\,2,81,001$

  • Bihar: $Rs\,60,337$

• Social Indicators (2020/2017-18):

  • Infant Mortality Rate (2020): Kerala ($6$), Haryana ($28$), Bihar (not directly cited in text, but implies high).

  • Literacy Rate (%): Kerala ($94$), Haryana ($82$), Bihar ($62$).

  • Net Attendance Ratio: Kerala ($94$), Haryana ($73$), Bihar ($69$).

• Analysis: Haryana has higher per capita income than Kerala, but Kerala is superior in critical social indicators like health (IMR) and education.

Public Facilities and Collective Provision

• Limits of Private Wealth: Money cannot buy a pollution-free environment, ensure unadulterated medicines, or protect from infectious diseases unless the whole community takes preventive steps.

• Efficiency of Collective Action: Providing goods and services collectively is the cheapest and most effective way (e.g., a local security guard vs. individual guards for every house, or government schools vs. individual private tutors).

• Public Distribution System (PDS): States with well-functioning PDS (like Tamil Nadu, where $90$ percent of rural people use ration shops) show better health and nutritional status compared to states with poor PDS (like West Bengal, with only $35$ percent usage).

Human Development Report (UNDP) 2025 Data

• Criteria for Comparison: Education levels, health status, and per capita income.

• Comparative Data for India and Neighbours (2023 Data):

  • Sri Lanka: GNI per capita $US\,12,616$; Life Expectancy $77.5$; Schooling $10.8$; HDI Rank $89$.

  • India: GNI per capita $US\,9,047$; Life Expectancy $72$; Schooling $6.9$; HDI Rank $130$.

  • Myanmar: GNI per capita $US\,4,919$; Life Expectancy $66.9$; Schooling $6.4$; HDI Rank $150$.

  • Pakistan: GNI per capita $US\,5,501$; Life Expectancy $67.6$; Schooling $4.3$; HDI Rank $168$.

  • Nepal: GNI per capita $US\,4,726$; Life Expectancy $70.4$; Schooling $4.5$; HDI Rank $145$.

  • Bangladesh: GNI per capita $US\,8,498$; Life Expectancy $74.7$; Schooling $6.8$; HDI Rank $130$.

• Key Observations: Sri Lanka is significantly ahead of India in all respects. Nepal and Bangladesh have higher life expectancy than India despite lower income levels.

Sustainability of Development

• Sustainability Defined: Ensuring that the level of development can be maintained for future generations. "We have not inherited the world from our forefathers — we have borrowed it from our children."

• Renewable Resources Example (Groundwater):

  • Evidence shows serious threat of overuse.

  • $300$ districts reported water level declines of over $4$ metres in the past $20$ years.

  • One-third of India is overusing groundwater. In $25$ years, $60$ percent of the country may be overusing reserves if current trends continue.

  • Overuse is highest in Punjab, Western UP, hard rock plateaus of central/south India, coastal areas, and growing urban settlements.

• Non-Renewable Resources Example (Crude Oil) (Table 1.7):

  • Middle East: Reserves of $836$ thousand million barrels; will last $70$ years.

  • USA: Reserves of $69$ thousand million barrels; will last $10.5$ years.

  • World Total: Reserves of $1732$ thousand million barrels; will last $47$ years.

• Implications: Countries like India, which depend on oil imports, face economic burdens when prices rise. Sustainability requires a multi-disciplinary approach involving scientists, economists, and philosophers.

Questions & Discussion

• Scenario: Abidjan, Ivory Coast (Africa): A ship dumped $500$ tonnes of liquid toxic waste. Fumes caused nausea, rashes, fainting, and diarrhea. Result: $7$ dead, $20$ hospitalized, $26,000$ treated for poisoning. A multinational petroleum company contracted a local company for disposal.

• BMI (Body Mass Index) Calculation:     $\text{BMI} = \frac{\text{Weight (kg)}}{(\text{Height (m)})^2}$

  • Indicators for undernourishment: A $14$-year-old girl with a BMI of $15.2$.

  • Indicators for overweight: A $15.5$-year-old boy with a BMI of $28$.

• Nutritional Comparison (BMI < 18.5 for 2019-21):

  • Kerala: Male $8.5 \%$, Female $10 \%$.

  • Karnataka: Male $17 \%$, Female $21 \%$.

  • Madhya Pradesh: Male $28 \%$, Female $28 \%$.

  • All States Average: Male $20 \%$, Female $23 \%$.