Notes on Lakota Treaties, Wounded Knee, and Pine Ridge

Context and Personal Frame

• Photographer’s framing: A slideshow about Lakota history, treaties, massacres, and the lasting legacy of settler expansion in the US. The speaker foregrounds a personal connection and moral reflection rather than neutral history alone.
• The speaker’s identity and its significance:
  • He is white, referring to himself as Washichu, a Lakota word meaning non-Indian and, in another sense, “the one who takes the best meat.” He discusses the social and ethical weight of being a white observer on a reservation and how that status shapes relationships with Lakota people.
  • He has built relationships with Lakota families over five years, being welcomed as family (they call him brother and uncle).
• Pine Ridge Reservation (the focus of the slideshow):
  • Located about $75 ext{ miles SE}$ of the Black Hills in South Dakota.
  • Referred to as Prisoner Of War Camp Number 334, where the Lakota now live.
  • Ground zero for Native issues in the US; associated with the American Indian Movement (AIM), Russell Means, Leonard Peltier, and the standoff at Wounded Knee (Oblala/“Oblala” standoff).
• The overarching theme: A presentation about a history of treaties, broken promises, massacres, and the ongoing legacy of colonization that continues to manifest in contemporary statistics and lived realities on reservations.
• The speaker’s purpose and call to accountability: to connect images to a historical record, reflect on the present, and issue a call to action to honor treaties and return the Black Hills.

Key Concepts and Terms

• Washichu: Lakota word meaning non-Indian; alternate sense: “the one who takes the best meat for himself” (greed).
• Black Hills: Sacred Lakota homeland; central to treaty disputes and the later “Black Hills not for sale” stance.
• Indian Removal Act (1830): Federal policy under Andrew Jackson encouraging removal of Indigenous peoples West of the Mississippi in exchange for land elsewhere; framed as a lawful policy but with severe consequences for Indigenous sovereignty.
• Reservations: Federal lands set aside for Indigenous use; typically off-limits to non-Indians; a mechanism used to confine Indigenous peoples to restricted areas.
• Treaty system vs. sovereignty: The concept that tribes could be sovereign nations via treaties (e.g., Fort Laramie), later undercut by removal policies and acts that diminished sovereignty.
• Fort Laramie Treaties (First in 1851; Second in 1868): Establishing Lakota boundaries and sovereignty (First Fort Laramie) and reaffirming Black Hills ownership and hunting rights, with promises about sacred lands and restricted white encroachment (Second Fort Laramie).
• Red Cloud’s War (1866–1868): Lakota/“Red Cloud” leadership defeating U.S. Army; a notable example where Indigenous groups achieved military success against the U.S. government.
• Transcontinental Railroad (1866–1869): Expansion through Lakota lands, accelerating white settlement and undermining treaty protections.
• Indian Appropriation Act (1871): Declared that Indians would be wards of the federal government and ended the era of treaty making; objective to dismantle tribal sovereignty via legal mechanisms.
• Dawes Act (1887): Ended communal land ownership; divided reservations into 160-acre allotments for individual Indians; resulted in massive loss of tribal land to non-Indians.
• Fort Laramie Treaty clause violations: Repeated violations as U.S. policy pursued gold and expansion.
• Discovery of gold in the Black Hills (1874): Triggered influx of settlers and endgame pressure to nullify treaties.
• Little Bighorn (1876): Custer’s Seventh Cavalry defeated by Lakota and allied forces; a symbol of Lakota military resistance.
• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): U.S. troops massacred Lakota encampment at Wounded Knee Creek using Hotchkiss guns; about 300 prisoners of war killed; 20 Medals of Honor awarded to soldiers, the most for a single battle.
• Ghost Dances: Indigenous spiritual movement associated with resistance and prophecy; referenced as an “inconvenience” to the U.S. authorities.
• Sioux Nation v. United States (1980): Longest-running court case in U.S. history; Supreme Court ruled that the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty’s terms had been violated by opening Black Hills to prospectors and homesteaders; awarded $106 million, which the Sioux refused with the slogan “Black Hills are not for sale.”
• 2010 statistics on Pine Ridge: Chronic underdevelopment and public health crises persist on the reservation (unemployment, housing, electricity, poverty, disease, education concerns, etc.).
• Thematic throughline: The “domino effect” of Manifest Destiny and the perpetual cycle of conquest, dispossession, and degradation of Indigenous lives and lands.

Timeline of Treaties, Conflicts, and Legislation (Key Events and Connections)

• 1824: Bureau of Indian Affairs created within the War Department; marks an early tone of aggression in federal-Native dealings.
• 1851: First Fort Laramie Treaty — delineated Lakota boundaries and recognized them as a sovereign nation under certain terms; established that lands were theirs if boundaries were not violated.
• 1863: Santee Sioux Uprising in Minnesota ends with the execution of 38 Sioux men (largest mass execution in U.S. history), ordered by President Lincoln two days after signing the Emancipation Proclamation.
• 1866: Beginning of the Transcontinental Railroad, enabling quicker movement of settlers; Lakota resistance (Red Cloud’s War) defeats the U.S. Army multiple times; sovereignty asserted in battle.
• 1868: Second Fort Laramie Treaty — guaranteed the sovereignty of the Great Sioux Nation; Lakota ownership of the Black Hills; guarantees land and hunting rights; Powder River country closed to whites.
• 1869: Transcontinental Railroad completed; large-scale buffalo hunting accelerates; destruction of food/clothing/shelter resources for the Sioux.
• 1871: Indian Appropriation Act — Indians become wards of the federal government; ends treaty making; public policy aimed at dismantling tribal sovereignty.
• 1874: General George Custer announces discovery of gold in the Black Hills; triggers demand to end Lakota treaties to access the land.
• 1875: Lakota War begins with violations of Fort Laramie Treaty.
• 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn — Custer’s Seventh Cavalry defeated by Lakota and allied forces.
• 1877: Crazy Horse surrenders at Fort Robinson and is killed in custody; “Seller Starve” protocol forces leaders to sign away land by withholding food; only 10% of adult males signed; Fort Laramie treaty’s land-signing threshold (three-quarters) was ignored.
• 1887: Dawes Act — Ends communal land ownership; parcels land into 160-acre allotments; surplus land sold or distributed to non-Indians; led to massive land loss for tribes.
• 1890: Wounded Knee Massacre — December 29; U.S. forces kill Lakota; Hotchkiss gun used; 300 prisoners killed; 20 Medals of Honor awarded; often cited as end of the Indian Wars.
• Post-1890: The U.S. continues to violate treaty terms and pursue Westward expansion, undermining Lakota sovereignty and land rights.
• 1980: Sioux Nation v. United States — Supreme Court decision acknowledges the unlawful seizure of the Black Hills and the violation of the 1868 treaty; awards $106 million, which Sioux reject with the slogan “Black Hills are not for sale.”
• 2010: Contemporary statistics paint a grim picture of life on Pine Ridge and broader Indigenous circumstances in the U.S., symbolizing the long arc from treaty violations to ongoing social challenges.

Notable People, Institutions, and Places Mentioned

• Lakota/Sioux Nation: Central Indigenous group discussed; historically moved from traditional homelands; faces ongoing sovereignty and rights struggles.
• Red Cloud: Lakota leader who led resistance against the U.S. Army during Red Cloud’s War; negotiated a peace that conceded much of what the Lakota demanded, described here as a unique peace by conceding everything demanded by the enemy.
• Crazy Horse: Renowned Lakota leader; surrendered at Fort Robinson in 1877 and was later killed in custody.
• Black Elk: Lakota Holy Man quoted in the speaker’s retelling; his words reflect a broader spiritual and historical lament.
• American Indian Movement (AIM): Movement mentioned in association with Pine Ridge’s contemporary Indigenous activism and standoffs (e.g., Wounded Knee standoff).
• Russell Means, Leonard Peltier: Figures associated with AIM; cited to anchor Pine Ridge in modern Indigenous activism.
• Warren/Oblala Standoff: The referenced standoff at Oblala (likely a mis-spelling of a well-known event) that connected to Pine Ridge and AIM.
• Pine Ridge Reservation: Current home of many Lakota people; site of the mass grave at Wounded Knee; emblematic of Indigenous struggles today.

Consequences, Legacies, and Significance

• Sovereignty and treaty violations:
  • The treaties (especially the Fort Laramie treaties of 1851 and 1868) established Lakota sovereignty and land rights; later policy shifts (1869–1871) eroded sovereignty and halted new treaty-making altogether.
  • The Indian Appropriation Act (1871) and subsequent policy marked a turning point toward wards of the state and away from treaty-based sovereignty.
• Dispossession and land loss:
  • Dawes Act (1887) destroyed communal ownership and fragmented tribal land into small parcels; vast tracts passed to non-Indians; land loss facilitated by multiple federal policies.
  • The Black Hills and surrounding lands were opened to prospectors after treaty violations and gold discovery, culminating in a dramatic loss of Indigenous land and resources.
• Military violence and mass death:
  • Santee Sioux executions (1863) and the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) symbolize the brutal culmination of U.S. expansion and suppression of Indigenous resistance.
  • The use of the Hotchkiss gun at Wounded Knee and the high number of Medals of Honor awarded highlight the paradox of commemorating military valor while acknowledging civilian and Indigenous casualties.
• Demographic and health impacts:
  • The U.S. Indian population shrank dramatically after contact: from an estimated 8,000,000 in 1492 to about 250,000 around the late 19th century; later, the 20th and 21st centuries show persistent disparities on reservations.
• Modern legal and ethical questions:
  • The 1980 court ruling offered monetary compensation for Black Hills land, but the Sioux rejected it, insisting that the Black Hills are not for sale and that land returns are not merely financial transactions.
  • The speaker asks how modern audiences should respond to historical traumas and current inequalities; the question of responsibility extends beyond personal guilt to collective action and policy reform.
• Socioeconomic realities on Pine Ridge (as of 2010):
  • Unemployment $85 ext{-}90 imes ext{ (percent)}$ range; persistent housing shortages and aging infrastructure.
  • Housing and utilities: about 39% of homes without electricity; around 60% of homes lack reliable electrical power; significant mold problems and aging housing stock.
  • Poverty: over 90% of residents live below the federal poverty line; tuberculosis rate roughly eight times the national average.
  • Health outcomes: infant mortality rate higher than national average; cervical cancer rate about five times higher; life expectancy for men around $46 ext{-}48 ext{ years}$; diabetes prevalence affects about half of people over 40.
  • Education: school dropout rate up to 70 ext{%}; teacher turnover around $8 imes$ national average; many grandparents raising grandchildren.
• Ethical reflection and the call to action:
  • The speaker emphasizes that the suffering depicted in photographs connects to a broader history and contemporary reality; he challenges the audience to consider responsibility beyond sympathy to concrete actions.
  • The “TED wish”: honor the treaties and give back the Black Hills; assert that it is not the audience’s place to judge what Indigenous communities do with their lands, but to rectify historic wrongs through action.
  • The closing question: how should one feel about today’s statistics in light of past injustices, and what responsibilities do people have to address them?

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

• Foundational themes:
  • The contradiction between the sovereignty promised by treaties and the reality of continual policy changes that erode that sovereignty.
  • The moral and political complexities of reparations, restitution, and recognition of Indigenous rights within a contemporary nation-state.
  • The long tail of historical injustices: how past policies (removal, forced boarding school era prep for assimilation, land allotments) influence present-day health, education, and economic outcomes.
• Real-world relevance:
  • Ongoing debates about Black Hills ownership and Indigenous land rights; legal precedents in treaty interpretation and sovereign rights impact current policy.
  • The role of activism (AIM, Wounded Knee 1973, ongoing Indigenous rights movements) in shaping national conversations about Indigenous sovereignty and social justice.
  • The importance of ethical engagement when documenting Indigenous communities: recognizing power dynamics, consent, and the role of beneficent storytelling.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications

• Ethical questions:
  • What responsibilities do descendants of colonizers have for past injustices when engaging with Indigenous communities today?
  • How should non-Indigenous people reconcile admiration for cultural resilience with accountability for historical violence and dispossession?
• Philosophical questions:
  • How do we balance historical memory with contemporary sovereignty and self-determination?
  • What does it mean to honor treaties in a modern, legally complex, and morally contested landscape?
• Practical implications:
  • Policy reform proposals may include land restitution, financial reparations, or policy changes aimed at restoring sovereignty and improving living conditions on reservations.
  • Supporting Indigenous-led initiatives, honoring treaty obligations, and addressing social determinants of health and education as part of a broader justice framework.

Numerical and Statistical References (LaTeX-Formatted)

• Pine Ridge location: $75 ext{ miles SE of the Black Hills}$
• 1824: Bureau of Indian Affairs created within the War Department
• 1851: First Fort Laramie Treaty (boundaries established)
• 1863: 38 Sioux men hanged (largest mass execution in U.S. history)
• 1866–1868: Red Cloud’s War (Lakota defeats of U.S. Army)
• 1868: Second Fort Laramie Treaty (sovereignty and Black Hills ownership reaffirmed)
• 1869: Transcontinental Railroad completed; buffalo slaughter accelerates
• 1871: Indian Appropriation Act ends treaty making; Indians become wards of the federal government
• 1874: Discovery of gold in the Black Hills
• 1875: Lakota War begins
• 1876: Battle of Little Bighorn; Custer’s Seventh Cavalry defeated
• 1877: Crazy Horse surrenders; seller starvation tactics; only 10 ext{%} of adult male population signed
• 1887: Dawes Act ends communal land ownership; 160-acre allotments; vast land loss
• 1890: Wounded Knee Massacre; $300$ prisoners killed; $20 ext{ Medals of Honor}$ awarded for that battle
• 1980: Sioux Nation v. United States; Supreme Court decision; award $106{,}000{,}000$; Black Hills not for sale
• 2010: Contemporary statistics on Pine Ridge:
  • Unemployment: 85 ext{-}90 ext{%}
  • No electricity in ~39 ext{%} of homes; ~60 ext{%} lack reliable electrical power; mold prevalence high
  • Poverty: >90 ext{%} below the federal poverty line
  • TB rate: about eight times the U.S. national average
  • Infant mortality: higher than national average
  • Cervical cancer: about five times higher
  • School dropout rate: up to 70 ext{%}
  • Teacher turnover: about $8 ext{ times}$ the national average
  • Life expectancy for men: $46 ext{-}48 ext{ years}$
  • Diabetes: about half of those over age 40 affected

Summary Takeaways (Synthesis)

• The speaker links a long chain of policies and events—from removal policies, to broken treaties, to mass violence, to ongoing social and health disparities—to illustrate how historical processes continue to shape present-day realities for the Lakota and other Indigenous peoples.
• The repeated motif is a paradox: sovereignty and rights promised by treaties have repeatedly been subverted by subsequent actions and policies, resulting in dispossession and lasting hardship, yet the narrative also highlights Indigenous resilience and ongoing activism.
• The call to action centers on accountability: honoring treaties and returning sacred lands (notably the Black Hills) as a concrete moral and political step toward redress.

Additional Notes for Study

• Memorize key treaty years and their core promises/violations: 1851 (boundaries), 1868 (Black Hills ownership, hunting rights), 1871 (end of treaties), 1887 (Dawes Act) and 1890 (Wounded Knee).
• Understand the shift from sovereignty via treaties to federal wards and the implications for Indigenous self-determination.
• Recognize the difference between symbolic reconciliation (dialogue, photography) and material redress (land return, policy changes).
• Be able to discuss how historical trauma translates into contemporary health and socioeconomic disparities on reservations like Pine Ridge.