Notes on African History - Women, Authority, and Power

This chapter explores the roles of influential African women in KwaZulu-Natal during pre-conquest and colonial times, highlighting their agency in male-dominated systems, and the subsequent erasure of their legacies, particularly focusing on Queen Mother Ntombazi of the Ndwandwe. These women wielded considerable authority, often overshadowed by male cultural brokers who dominated information production. Mazisi Kunene described Queen Ntombazi as a politically significant figure during the pre-Shakan and Shakan eras, while Mantathisi rose to power in the turbulent period of 1815–1824. These figures challenged feminist perspectives that depicted African women merely as victims of patriarchal societies. Jordan Ngubane emphasized the authority and military roles of Queen Mother Ntombazi and Mnkabayi, with Ntombazi known for ordering the beheading of conquered princes, and Mnkabayi for commanding the Zulu army. Nandi, King Shaka’s mother, was celebrated for her personal qualities, and this chapter seeks to correct the claims against Ntombazi and restore her izibongo and oral traditions that the Zulu had attempted to obliterate. The izibongo illustrates the intricate relationship between Nandi, Senzangakhona, and Shaka, highlighting Nandi's strength. She was known for her resilience, protecting her son despite being ousted from esiKlebeni, eventually finding refuge under the Mthethwa monarchy. Unlike the well-preserved traditions of Mnkabayi and Nandi, Queen Mother Ntombazi lacks empowering oral traditions, with existing narratives largely shaped by Zulu cultural brokers. Cheik Anta Diop sheds light on African warrior queens who defended their nations, highlighting the matrilineal nature of many non-European societies, where men brought dowries to women. John Henrik Clarke asserts that African women frequently held unquestioned authority, becoming heads of state during the rise of dynasties in Egypt, Kush, and Ethiopia. Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt (1505–1485 BCE) ruled for 21 years, her reign marking a peaceful period in Egyptian history, while Queen Makeda, or the Queen of Sheba, was celebrated for her diplomatic prowess. Other notable warrior queens include Ndzinga of Angola, Madame Tinubu of Nigeria, Kaipkire of the Herero, and Yaa Asantewa of the Ashanti. Onaiwu Ogbomo points out that while oral traditions suggest Africa was once matriarchal, it has predominantly become patriarchal due to men dominating these narratives. True matriarchy encompasses female rule, matrilinealism, matrilocality, and a pantheon of goddesses. In Southern Africa, goddesses like Nomkhubulwana are no longer worshipped; she was seen as the goddess of change, continuity, and balance who intervened during natural disasters and represented rebirth and growth. Queen Mother Ntombazi, born in the mid-eighteenth century, was influential in the Ndwandwe kingdom, and despite negative portrayals in oral traditions, her power and authority merit recognition. The Ndwandwe kingdom (1750-1820) was overshadowed by the Zulu state, which emerged from the Mfecane, allegedly initiated by King Shaka. Mzilikazi and Soshangane’s connections to the Ndwandwe highlight this kingdom's significance in precolonial migrations. The cultural erasure of Queen Mother Ntombazi’s image followed King Zwide’s defeat by King Shaka in the early 1820s, with Zulu elites deliberately erasing historical knowledge of the Ndwandwe. Oral traditions about Queen Mother Ntombazi are scarce, often depicting a chilling image, unlike the traditions of Mnkabayi and Mantathisi. Kunene’s depictions, drawn from oral traditions, portray her as frightful, keeping skulls and instigating battles; Zuluist cultural brokers played a key role in constructing negative stereotypes about Ntombazi and the Ndwandwe monarchy. James Stuart documented Socwatsha ka Phaphu’s accounts of Ntombazi’s residence where heads of rivals were displayed, reinforcing an image of fear, later published as “Indhlu kaNtombazi kaLanga” and used in isiZulu language and literature. Ntombazi is thus portrayed as irrational, superstitious, and associated with European fixations on African witchcraft. The isiZulu saying reflects the inaccessibility of Ntombazi’s quarters: “Ha (w) u! Kwa Ntombazi lapa, kwa ku nga ngenwa, ini?” John Wright and Carolyn Hamilton have analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of Stuart’s collection of African oral traditions, with Stuart himself acknowledging his informants as active contributors of knowledge. Socwatsha ka Phaphu noted the limitations on freedom of speech within the Zulu Kingdom, influencing the narratives about Ntombazi, and Wright suggests that the history of the Ndwandwe kingdom has been largely lost due to biased narrations of southern Africa’s precolonial past. The Ndwandwe kingdom’s breakup after its defeat disrupted the oral transmission of its history, and references in white settler writings were brief and often confusing. Bhambatha Benedict Wallet Vilakazi omitted Queen Mother Ntombazi in his historical novel about Dingiswayo ka Jobe; the Ndwandwe, however, are credited with displacing Mzilikazi and Soshangane. Wright calls for archaeological evidence to corroborate understandings of the Ndwandwe monarchy, noting that creative African writers used existing oral traditions to reinforce ideological viewpoints about the Ndwandwe polity. Zuluist literary representations were carried out by Joyce Jessie Gwayi, A. H. Dladla, Moses Ngcobo, Kunene, and Vilakazi in historical novels and epics like Dladla’s uNtombazi, Ngcobo’s Qhude Manikiniki, and Gwayi’s Shumpu. Gwayi’s Shumpu highlights Shaka’s efforts to erase the memory of Zwide’s Ndwandwe tribe, while Kunene’s “Zulu power is eternal” influences perspectives on the relationship between the Ndwandwe and amaZulu. These versions present Ntombazi as a sadistic female monarch, with isiZulu literary texts echoing Socwatsha ka Phaphu’s negative portrayals, depicting her as an irrational sorcerer and superstitious demagogue. She is portrayed as savage, evil, and a witch who used human body parts for her muthi and manipulated King Zwide to expand his kingdom. Gwayi depicts Ntombazi suggesting witchcraft to undermine the Mthethwa, a proposition Zwide rejects in favor of military strategies. Gwayi admits to creating dialogue that diverges from historical fact, with the title Shumpu itself connected to beheading. Zwangendaba, Nxaba, Mzilikazi, and Soshangane are viewed as defining the “Ndwandwe diaspora,” with the Ndwandwe and Khumalo polities linked through marriage. Ngcobo claims Ntombazi mourned Mzilikazi’s death.

Key points:

Influential Women: Focuses on powerful African women in KwaZulu-Natal.
Agency: Highlights their ability to act independently within male-dominated structures.
Erasure of Legacies: Discusses how their contributions and stories were often suppressed or forgotten.
Queen Mother Ntombazi: Centers around the story of Queen Mother Ntombazi of the Ndwandwe.

These women wielded considerable authority, often overshadowed by male cultural brokers who dominated information production. Mazisi Kunene described Queen Ntombazi as a politically significant figure during the pre-Shakan and Shakan eras, while Mantathisi rose to power in the turbulent period of 1815–1824.

Key points:

Male Domination: Notes that male figures often controlled the narrative and minimized women's roles.
Political Influence: Recognizes Ntombazi's importance in the pre-Shakan and Shakan periods.
Mantathisi's Rise: Mentions Mantathisi as another powerful female leader.

These figures challenged feminist perspectives that depicted African women merely as victims of patriarchal societies. Jordan Ngubane emphasized the authority and military roles of Queen Mother Ntombazi and Mnkabayi, with Ntombazi known for ordering the beheading of conquered princes, and Mnkabayi for commanding the Zulu army. Nandi, King Shaka’s mother, was celebrated for her personal qualities, and this chapter seeks to correct the claims against Ntombazi and restore her izibongo and oral traditions that the Zulu had attempted to obliterate.

Key points:

Challenging Stereotypes: These women were not merely victims but active agents.
Military Roles: Ntombazi and Mnkabayi held significant military power.
Nandi's Legacy: Acknowledges Nandi’s positive attributes and legacy.
Restoring Ntombazi's History: Aims to correct negative portrayals and recover her true story.

The izibongo illustrates the intricate relationship between Nandi, Senzangakhona, and Shaka, highlighting Nandi's strength. She was known for her resilience, protecting her son despite being ousted from esiKlebeni, eventually finding refuge under the Mthethwa monarchy.

Key points:

Izibongo: Highlights the importance of oral traditions in preserving history.
Nandi's Strength: Emphasizes her resilience and protective nature.
Mthethwa Monarchy: Notes the refuge provided by the Mthethwa.

Unlike the well-preserved traditions of Mnkabayi and Nandi, Queen Mother Ntombazi lacks empowering oral traditions, with existing narratives largely shaped by Zulu cultural brokers. Cheik Anta Diop sheds light on African warrior queens who defended their nations, highlighting the matrilineal nature of many non-European societies, where men brought dowries to women. John Henrik Clarke asserts that African women frequently held unquestioned authority, becoming heads of state during the rise of dynasties in Egypt, Kush, and Ethiopia.

Key points:

Lack of Oral Traditions for Ntombazi: Highlights the disparity in historical preservation.
Zulu Cultural Influence: Notes the impact of Zulu narratives on Ntombazi's story.
African Warrior Queens: Broadens the discussion to include other influential African women.
Matrilineal Societies: Points out the significance of matrilineal systems in African history.

Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt (1505–1485 BCE) ruled for 21 years, her reign marking a peaceful period in Egyptian history, while Queen Makeda, or the Queen of Sheba, was celebrated for her diplomatic prowess. Other notable warrior queens include Ndzinga of Angola, Madame Tinubu of Nigeria, Kaipkire of the Herero, and Yaa Asantewa of the Ashanti.

Key points:

Historical Examples: Provides examples of powerful African queens and their achievements.
Hatshepsut: Highlights her peaceful reign in Egypt.
Queen of Sheba: Celebrates her diplomatic skills.
Other Notable Queens: Mentions several other significant female leaders.

Onaiwu Ogbomo points out that while oral traditions suggest Africa was once matriarchal, it has predominantly become patriarchal due to men dominating these narratives. True matriarchy encompasses female rule, matrilinealism, matrilocality, and a pantheon of goddesses. In Southern Africa, goddesses like Nomkhubulwana are no longer worshipped; she was seen as the goddess of change, continuity, and balance who intervened during natural disasters and represented rebirth and growth.

Key points:

Shift from Matriarchy to Patriarchy: Discusses the transition in African societies.
Elements of Matriarchy: Defines the characteristics of a true matriarchal society.
Loss of Goddess Worship: Notes the decline in the worship of goddesses like Nomkhubulwana.

Queen Mother Ntombazi, born in the mid-eighteenth century, was influential in the Ndwandwe kingdom, and despite negative portrayals in oral traditions, her power and authority merit recognition. The Ndwandwe kingdom (1750-1820) was overshadowed by the Zulu state, which emerged from the Mfecane, allegedly initiated by King Shaka. Mzilikazi and Soshangane’s connections to the Ndwandwe highlight this kingdom's significance in precolonial migrations.

Key points:

Ntombazi's Influence: Reaffirms her importance in the Ndwandwe kingdom.
Ndwandwe Kingdom: Provides context for the kingdom's history and role.
Mfecane: Mentions the rise of the Zulu state and its impact.
Connections: Reveals relationships to other polities.

The cultural erasure of Queen Mother Ntombazi’s image followed King Zwide’s defeat by King Shaka in the early 1820s, with Zulu elites deliberately erasing historical knowledge of the Ndwandwe. Oral traditions about Queen Mother Ntombazi are scarce, often depicting a chilling image, unlike the traditions of Mnkabayi and Mantathisi. Kunene’s depictions, drawn from oral traditions, portray her as frightful, keeping skulls and instigating battles; Zuluist cultural brokers played a key role in constructing negative stereotypes about Ntombazi and the Ndwandwe monarchy.

Key points:

Cultural Erasure: Discusses the systematic removal of Ntombazi's positive image.
Negative Depictions: Highlights the negative portrayals in oral traditions.
Role of Zulu Brokers: Emphasizes their influence in shaping Ntombazi's negative image.

James Stuart documented Socwatsha ka Phaphu’s accounts of Ntombazi’s residence where heads of rivals were displayed, reinforcing an image of fear, later published as “Indhlu kaNtombazi kaLanga” and used in isiZulu language and literature. Ntombazi is thus portrayed as irrational, superstitious, and associated with European fixations on African witchcraft. The isiZulu saying reflects the inaccessibility of Ntombazi’s quarters: “Ha (w) u! Kwa Ntombazi lapa, kwa ku nga ngenwa, ini?”

Key points:

Stuart's Documentation: Notes the written accounts that contributed to Ntombazi's image.
Negative Stereotypes: Points out the association with irrationality and witchcraft.
Inaccessibility: Highlights the perception of Ntombazi's isolation and power.

John Wright and Carolyn Hamilton have analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of Stuart’s collection of African oral traditions, with Stuart himself acknowledging his informants as active contributors of knowledge. Socwatsha ka Phaphu noted the limitations on freedom of speech within the Zulu Kingdom, influencing the narratives about Ntombazi, and Wright suggests that the history of the Ndwandwe kingdom has been largely lost due to biased narrations of southern Africa’s precolonial past. The Ndwandwe kingdom’s breakup after its defeat disrupted the oral transmission of its history, and references in white settler writings were brief and often confusing.

Key points:

Analysis of Oral Traditions: Discusses the reliability and biases in historical sources.
Limitations on Speech: Notes the restricted freedom of expression in the Zulu Kingdom.
Loss of History: Highlights the incomplete and biased historical record.

Bhambatha Benedict Wallet Vilakazi omitted Queen Mother Ntombazi in his historical novel about Dingiswayo ka Jobe; the Ndwandwe, however, are credited with displacing Mzilikazi and Soshangane. Wright calls for archaeological evidence to corroborate understandings of the Ndwandwe monarchy, noting that creative African writers used existing oral traditions to reinforce ideological viewpoints about the Ndwandwe polity. Zuluist literary representations were carried out by Joyce Jessie Gwayi, A. H. Dladla, Moses Ngcobo, Kunene, and Vilakazi in historical novels and epics like Dladla’s uNtombazi, Ngcobo’s Qhude Manikiniki, and Gwayi’s Shumpu.

Key points:

Omission in Literature: Highlights the absence of Ntombazi in some historical accounts.
Ndwandwe’s Role: Recognizes their impact on other groups like Mzilikazi and Soshangane.
Need for Evidence: Calls for further archaeological research.
Literary Representations: Notes the different portrayals in various literary works.

Gwayi’s Shumpu highlights Shaka’s efforts to erase the memory of Zwide’s Ndwandwe tribe, while Kunene’s “Zulu power is eternal” influences perspectives on the relationship between the Ndwandwe and amaZulu. These versions present Ntombazi as a sadistic female monarch, with isiZulu literary texts echoing Socwatsha ka Phaphu’s negative portrayals, depicting her as an irrational sorcerer and superstitious demagogue. She is portrayed as savage, evil, and a witch who used human body parts for her muthi and manipulated King Zwide to expand his kingdom. Gwayi depicts Ntombazi suggesting witchcraft to undermine the Mthethwa, a proposition Zwide rejects in favor of military strategies. Gwayi admits to creating dialogue that diverges from historical fact, with the title Shumpu itself connected to beheading. Zwangendaba, Nxaba, Mzilikazi, and Soshangane are viewed as defining the “Ndwandwe diaspora,” with the Ndwandwe and Khumalo polities linked through marriage. Ngcobo claims Ntombazi mourned Mzilikazi’s death.

Key points:

Shaka’s Erasure Efforts: Notes the attempts to eliminate the memory of the Ndwandwe.
Conflicting Perspectives: Highlights differing views on Ntombazi and the Ndwandwe.
**Negative Port