GRADE-8-RATIONALISED-SOCIAL-STUDIES-LESSON-NOTES

STRAND 1 PEOPLE AND POPULATION

1.1 Scientific theory about human origin

The scientific theory of human origin is also known as the evolution theory.
Charles Darwin developed the theory.
The theory posits that all living organisms change over millions of years, evolving from simple to complex forms.
This evolution occurs through:
- Mutation: Changes in genes and body behavior.
- Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest organisms after mutation.
- Adaptation: Organisms adjusting to new environments after surviving mutation and natural selection.

Stages of Human Evolution

Stages include Aegyptopithecus, Dryopithecus, Kenyapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, and Homo sapiens sapiens.

Aegyptopithecus

Earliest ancestor of humans and apes.
Discovered in Egypt.
Moved on four limbs and had a tail.

Dryopithecus

Had a flat skull and larger canines.
Discovered on Rusinga Island.
Moved on four limbs and had a pointed face.

Kenyapithecus or Ramapithecus

Had larger teeth and jawbone.
Discovered in Fort Tenan.
Moved on two legs.
Had a larger brain capacity.

Australopithecus

Had a sloping forehead, projecting face, and big eyebrows.
Discovered in Ethiopia and Kenya.
Walked upright.
Had a larger brain capacity than Kenyapithecus.

Homo habilis (Handy man)

Was human-like with longer arms.
Lived in families.
Had a brain capacity larger than that of Australopithecus.
Discovered in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

Homo erectus

Was upright man.
Had a brain capacity of $850cm^3$ , larger than Homo habilis.
Discovered fire and made advanced tools.

Homo sapiens

Were more intelligent than Homo erectus.
Had a brain capacity of $1000-1800cm^3$ .
Had straight legs and walked with long strides.
Had a rounded skull with square eye sockets.

Homo sapiens sapiens

Last stage of human evolution.
Most advanced creature on earth.

Importance of Fossil Records

Fossils are preserved remains of plants and animals found beneath the Earth's surface.
Fossil records help in understanding human evolution, lifestyle, adaptation, and physical changes.
Importance of fossil records:
- Provide evidence of how plants and animals adapted to their environment.
- Help establish evolutionary relationships between organisms and ancestors.
- Help establish the time period when organisms lived.
- Help archaeologists and scientists place events and species in historical and geographical context.
- Help understand social, political, and economic life of humans over the years.
- Give information on human culture, clothing, food, and beliefs in the past.
- Give information on economic activities, such as hunting, cultivation, and fishing.
- Give information on tools and materials used in farming, hunting, war, and religious activities.
- Provide evidence that Africa is the cradle of humanity.

Locations of human remains discovered in Africa

Prehistoric sites are locations where human remains, evidencing past existence, have been found.
The oldest remains were discovered in Ethiopia, dating back approximately 200,000 years.
Examples:
- Australopithecus: Taung (Botswana, 1924), Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania, 1959), Omo Valley (Ethiopia, 1974).
- Homo habilis: Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania, 1964), Koobi Fora (1969), Olorgesailie near Lake Magadi (Kenya).
- Homo erectus: Shores of Lake Turkana (Kenya), Hadar (Ethiopia), Morocco, South Africa, Algeria, Nariokotome River (Kenya, 1984).
- Homo sapiens: Eliye Springs (Kenya) near Lake Turkana, Omo River (Ethiopia), Ngaloba (Tanzania), Fort Ternan (Kenya) where Ramapithecus or Kenyapithecus were found.

Changes in Humans due to Evolution

Evolution has been a continuous process of change and adaptation.
Changes occurred in teeth, arms, body shape, brain size, leg structure, and head shape.
These changes were crucial for adapting to new environmental conditions for survival.
Key developments:
- Walking on two legs, freeing hands for tool use.
- Brain growth, leading to advanced cognitive abilities.
- Development of tool-making and usage.
- Language development, enabling communication.
- Teeth adaptation to a diverse diet.
- Complex social structures, like forming family units and communities.
- Reduced body hair.

1.2 Early Civilization

Places of Origin of Early Visitors to the East Africa Coast

East Africa was visited by people from Europe and Asia, including:
- Arabs
- Portuguese
- Indians
- Persians
- Chinese
- Greeks
- Egyptians
- Phoenicians
- Romans
- Syrians

Swahili Civilization along the East African Coast

The East African coastline includes Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique.
Swahili civilization arose from interactions between local Bantu communities and Arab traders.
Practiced a blend of Islam and traditional African religions, changing culture, religion, economic, and social ways of life.
Developed new clothing designs such as Kanga, Kanzu, and Taqiyah.
Introduced Swahili foods like biryani, pilau, and mahamri.
Swahili people were known for trading, fishing, and seafaring.
Established city-states like Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar, which became trade centers.
Traded goods such as gold, ivory, and slaves.
Built religious structures like mosques and houses from makuti, coral stones, and lime.
Constructed dhows (small wooden boats) for navigation along the East African coast.
Maintained trade routes connecting Africa to the Middle East.
European powers later colonized East Africa and abolished the slave trade.
The Swahili culture still thrives along the East African coast today.
The Swahili language is spoken in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Factors that Led to the Growth of East Africa city-states

Bantu migration and arrival of the Arabs:
- Migration of Bantu speaking people to the East African coast led to interaction with Arabs.
- Bantus practiced agriculture, while Arabs were traders, aiding in establishing trading centers that developed into city-states.
Trade:
- Trade occurred between East African merchants and traders from India, China, Persia, and Arabia.
- East African cities exported agricultural products and slaves.
Monsoon winds:
- Facilitated movement of traders' vessels from one coast to another.
Rise of Islam:
- Conversion to Islam connected Swahili states to trade networks along the coastal areas.
Good deep natural harbors:
- Natural harbors ensured safe docking of vessels.
Swahili language and culture:
- City-states were considered the product of Swahili language and cultural heritage.

Best practices of early civilization that contributed to the development of the modern world

Ancient Egypt influenced building designs and construction.
Egyptian hieroglyphics evolved into modern writing and education.
Knowledge of planning seasons based on calendars started in early civilization and evolved into weather forecasting.
Industrial development in ancient kingdoms used simple skills; copper and tin were used to make items. Today, industries use metals and alloys to make equipment.
Modern irrigation technology borrows from ancient techniques like shadoof irrigation, applied in agriculture.
Tools like jembes/hoes were developed in ancient civilizations and are used in farming today.
The modern government structure resembles structures adopted in early civilization.
Contributions of early civilizations:
- Irrigation technology: Agriculture sector.
- Building technology: Engineering sector.
- Hieroglyphics: Education and writing sectors.
- Weather forecasting: Agriculture sectors.
- Trading (exchange of goods and services): Trade.
- Political structure: Political governance.
- Mining of minerals (copper, gold, tin): Industrialization.

1.3 Population growth in Africa

Population growth is determined by comparing national census outcomes.
Population growth can be positive or negative.
Positive population growth: Birth and immigration rates are higher than death and emigration rates, resulting in rapid growth.
Negative population growth: More people leave through death or emigration than those joining through birth and immigration, resulting in slow growth.
Population growth is the change in population size over time.
Factors influencing population growth:
- Migration.
- High birth rate.
- Reduced death rate.
Population census data guides government planning and decision-making.

Causes of Population growth in Africa

High fertility rates: Due to cultural, social, and economic factors like early marriages, limited access to contraceptives, and traditional beliefs.
Declining mortality rates: Improved healthcare, access to clean water, and advancements in medical technology have reduced infant and child mortality.
Urbanization: Increased migration from rural areas to cities in search of better opportunities.
Lack of education: Limits understanding of family planning methods and contraceptives, resulting in high birth rates.
Natural calamities: Drought and famine result in high deaths, slowing population growth.

Effects of population growth in Africa

Over-exploitation of resources.
Unemployment and poverty.
Shortage of social amenities.
Increased innovation.
Development of urban centers.
Food insecurity.
Increased crime rates.
Ready markets for goods and services.
Increase in supply of human labor.
Deforestation to provide human settlement.
Strain on limited resources and infrastructure.
Loss of culture and diminishing trust.
Rise in dependency ratio.

Types of Migration in Africa

Migration: Movement of people from one place to another.
Place of origin: The place people move from.
Place of destination: The place people move to.
Internal migration: Movement within a country.
- Rural to urban migration.
- Urban to rural migration.
- Rural to rural migration.
- Urban to urban migration.
External migration: Movement from one country to another.

Effects of migration in Africa

Development of urban centers.
Congestion of urban areas.
Cultural diversity.
Growth of slums.
Pressure on public services.
Separation of families.
Remittances boost local economies.
Rural areas have more elderly people as the younger generation migrates.

Demographic trends in Kenya

Kenya's demographic trends have been changing.

Population Growth

Kenya’s population is approximately 50 million and growing steadily.

Urbanization

More Kenyans are moving from rural to urban areas.
Cities like Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu are growing.

Age Structure

Kenya has a young population, with a large proportion under 30.
This impacts education, employment, and social services.

Ethic Diversity

Kenya is home to diverse ethnic groups, each with its own language and culture.
This diversity can be a source of strength, but also presents challenges in national unity.

Health and Mortality

Significant progress in improving health outcomes, but challenges remain.
Infant mortality rates are still high, and HIV & AIDS remain major concerns.

STRAND 2 PEOPLE AND RELATIONSHIPS

2.1 Building Self-esteem

Building self-esteem is developing a positive perception of one’s worth and abilities.
Involves recognizing strengths and accomplishments, while accepting and learning from mistakes.

Factors that influence self-esteem in day-to-day life

Positive interactions boost self-esteem; negative interactions lower it.
Accomplishing goals increases self-esteem.
Negative body image lowers self-esteem; positive body image boosts it.
Supportive environments boost self-esteem; negative environments lower it.
Unrealistic beauty standards lead to low self-esteem.

Ways of building a healthy self-esteem for promotion of social cohesion

Healthy self-esteem promotes positive interactions and respect for others.
Build self-esteem by:
- Believing in yourself.
- Celebrating successes.
- Maintaining a positive attitude.
- Being kind to yourself.
- Promoting body positivity.
- Being assertive.

Healthy esteem in social interactions

Healthy esteem involves demonstrating confidence and self-acceptance.
Show healthy self-esteem by:
- Being confident.
- Setting goals.
- Seeking support.
- Handling criticism positively.
- Practicing self-care.

Values that enhance healthy self-esteem in day-to-day life

Integrity.
Responsibility.
Patience.
Love.
Kindness.
Respect.

2.2 Emotional care

Emotional care is one’s well-being and the ability to cope with life's challenges and emotions.

Ways of dealing with difficult emotions in daily life

Difficult emotions include anger, sadness, fear, loneliness, guilt, anxiety, and shame.
Manage difficult emotions healthily:
- Recognize and accept emotions.
- Identify the emotions.
- Seeking support.
- Finding triggers.
- Engaging in physical activities.
- Guiding and counselling.

Real life situations that require emotional intelligence in day-to-day interactions

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage emotions in oneself and others.
Situations include school, family, and social environments.
Importance of emotional intelligence:
- Helps make better decisions.
- Helps manage emotions.
- Maintains healthy relationships.

You can be described as having emotional intelligence if you show the following qualities

Self-awareness.
Self-regulation.
Self-motivation.
Empathy.
Social skills.

Exhibiting emotional intelligence

Recognize and understand emotions.
Manage and control emotions.
Identify emotional triggers.
Find positive ways of coping with stress.
Journal emotions.
Understand others' feelings.

2.3 Resilience

Resilience is the ability to recover from adversity and stressful situations.
It involves coping with challenges while maintaining a positive mindset.
Resilient individuals persevere and learn from failures.

Situations that require resilience in day-to-day life

Dealing with chronic/terminal illness.
Overcoming grief.
Experiencing failure.
Business losses.
Practicing a new skill.
Dealing with rejection/discrimination.

Characteristics of a resilient person

Problem solver.
Positive attitude.
Flexible.
Perseverance.
Emotionally intelligent.
Confident.
Growth attitude.
Self-awareness.
Good communicator.
Accepting.

Values that enhance effectiveness in resilience in life

Courage.
Patience.
Integrity.
Humility.
Gratitude.

Ways of Building Resilience in different situations

Knowing when to ask for help.
Developing a positive mindset.
Embracing change.
Building your self-esteem.
Managing stress positively.
Improving your problem-solving skills and coping strategies.

2.4 Socio-Cultural diversity and inclusion

Socio-cultural diversity is social, cultural, racial, and ethnic backgrounds in communities.
Includes differences in ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, gender, age, and socio-economic status.
Inclusion is giving people from diverse backgrounds equal access to opportunities without discrimination.

Ways of celebrating various socio-cultural diversity in the community

Participating in music and drama festivals.
Celebrating Utamaduni day.
Organizing cultural festivals.
Encouraging intermarriages.
Interacting with people from different communities.
Cooking and eating dishes from different cultures.

Promoting respect for socio-cultural and inclusion in society

Learning about different cultures.
Participating in cultural events.
Participating in Kenya Music and Drama Festivals.
Creating awareness about socio-cultural diversity and inclusion.
Preserving cultural artefacts.
Respecting and celebrating diversities.

2.5 Building healthy relationships

Relationships: Connections between individuals.

Effects of relationships on self and others

Positive effects:
- Happiness
- Healthy self-esteem
- Positive attitude
- Personal growth
- Gratitude
- Reduced stress
Negative effects:
- Suspicion
- Mistrust
- Low self-esteem
- Jealousy
- Gossip
- Conflict

Engaging in healthy relationships in day-to-day

Effective communication.
Empathy.
Respect.
Trust.
Resolving conflicts.

Building healthy relationships for sustainable lifestyle

Shared values.
Communication.
Educate and inspire.
Shared activities.
Volunteer together.
Engage in activities such as:
- Planting trees.
- Engaging in physical exercises.
- Engaging in business enterprises.
- Cleaning waste in the community.

Signs that indicate unhealthy relationship

Poor communication.
Lack of trust.
Disrespectful behavior.
Physical abuse.
Emotional abuse.
Repeated patterns of conflict.

Characteristics of an unhealthy relationships

Difficulties in expressing needs and feelings.
Dishonesty leading to lack of trust.
Disrespect through constant criticism.
Jealousy.

Values that enhance healthy relationships in life

Trust.
Respect.
Unity.
Gratitude.
Love.
Empathy.

2.6 Peaceful Conflict resolution

Conflict: Disagreement between individuals or groups.

Situations that may lead to conflict in a family

Poor communication.
Competition such as sibling rivalry.
Parental comparison.
Unequal distribution of house chores.
Differences in value
Stress

Characteristics of a peaceful family

Provides support, love, and care.
Maintains open communication.
Spends quality time together.
Shows respect.
Has conflict resolution strategies.
Provides emotional support.

Non-violent ways of solving family conflict

Negotiation.
Problem-solving.
Mediation.
Apologizing.
Forgiveness.

Importance of resolving family conflicts peacefully

Maintains healthy relationships.
Sets a positive example.
Reduces stress.
Promotes understanding and empathy.

STRAND 3 COMMUNITY SERVICE LEARNING

3.1 Community Service-Learning Project

Community service project: Voluntary initiative to solve a specific need or improve community well-being.

Identifying a problem or a gap in the community

Classroom discussion.
Field trips to community centers/NGO's.
Conducting survey.
Conducting media analyses.

Implementing the plan for solving the identified problem

Set clear objectives.
Break down the project into tasks.
Assign responsibilities.
Set deadlines.
Gather resources.
Perform tasks.
Monitor progress.

Benefits of Community Service Learning

Apply classroom knowledge to real-life situations.
Develop problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and leadership skills.
Gain better understanding of social issues.
Boost self-esteem and personal growth.
Community benefits.
Encourages diversity.

STRAND 4 NATURAL AND HISTORIC BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

4.1 Map reading and interpretation

A map is a scaled representation of an area showing features like roads, rivers, and landmarks.
Map reading is interpreting and analyzing information on a map.

Marginal information to interpret maps

Marginal information includes additional facts found around the map's margin or border.

Elements of a map

Title.
Frame.
Key.
Compass direction.
Scale.

Map series

Collection of related maps covering a specific area at different detail levels.

Title

The name or heading of the map sheet, printed in bold letters.

Grid reference system

Conventional signs and symbols representing natural and human-made features.

Latitudes

Horizontal imaginary lines showing distance north or south from the equator.

Longitude

Vertical imaginary lines showing distance east or west from the Greenwich Meridian.

Publisher

The person or company that published the map.

Sheet index number

Number identifying a map sheet from others in a series, found at the bottom of the map.

Scale

Ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.

Copyright

Edition number

Shows the year that the map was published

Key

Compass direction

Indicates directions on the map.
A topographical map represents Earth's physical and man-made features in detail, including rivers, roads, railways, and mountains.

Types and Uses of Scales on maps

A scale is the ratio of distance on the map to the actual distance on the ground.
It helps understand the relationship between map distance and physical world distance.
Types of scales:
- Statement scale.
- Representative scale.
- Linear scale.

Statement scale

Written description of the relationship between map distance and ground distance.
Example: 1 centimeter represents 100 kilometers.

Representative scale

Ratio scale expressing the relationship between map distance and ground distance.
Example: 1:10,000, meaning one unit on the map represents 10,000 units on the ground.
Also referred to as a fraction scale.

Linear scale

Graphic representation of the relationship between map distance and ground distance.
Shown as a bar or line with markings indicating distance on the map and ground distance.

Uses of scales on Maps

Measure distances on maps and compare them to actual ground distances.
Determine the level of detail a map can display.
Enable drawing maps expressing actual distances on a small flat surface.
Determine the shortest route for navigation.

Converting scales

Converting representative fraction scale into statement scale

Example 1
Convert 1/200,000 into statement scale.
Solution
First convert the denominator which is in centimetres into kilometres.
$(200,000 ÷ 100,000 = 2Km)$
Therefore, the representative fraction when expressed as a statement scale is 1cm on the map represents 2 kilometres on the ground or 1cm is to 2 km.

Converting linear scale into representative fraction

Example
R. F. 1:50,000
Convert the given linear scale into a representative fraction scale.
Solution
You start by converting the linear scale into a statement scale by measuring the distance represented by 1 cm on the linear scale.
1cm represents 1km.
Then convert the statement scale into a representative fraction scale.
1km = 100,000cm.
Therefore, 1 cm will represent $(1 \times 100,000 = 100,000 cm)$ .
The representative fraction scale (RF) is 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.

Converting representative fraction scale (RF) into linear scale

NOTE:

Scales used on maps can be representative, linear or statement.
Scales are important as they enable us to find actual distance on the ground.
They also enable us to determine details presented by a map. This is determined by the size of maps.
The size of maps is determined by scale.
This can be:
- Small scale maps -this is a map that has a scale larger than 1:1000,000.
- Medium scale maps – this is a map whose scale range from 1:25,000 to 1:50,000.
- Large scale maps -this is a map with a scale range from 1:25,000 to 1:2000 and below.
Determining distances and areas of places on a map using scales

Measuring distances on a topographical map

Measuring distance on a map enables one to determine the distance between two points or places. The distance is measure using scale. The distance measured is either straight or curved, for example, a river, a road or a railway line.
Equipment used to measure distance on a map. They include:
- A ruler.
- A string.
- A piece of paper with straight edge.
- A pair of dividers.
Factors that determine the choice of the methods to be used in measuring distance on a map.Whether long, short , straight or curved.

Measuring distance a long a curved line

On maps there are winding routes between two points like in case of roads, rivers and railways.
Such features form curved lines when required to determine the exact distances.
Various methods are used to measure or determine determine the distance such as:
- Using a piece of string.
- A sheet of paper.
- Pair of dividers.

Calculating area of Irregular objects

Maps cover different places and features on the ground. Some features on maps such as forest, swamps and lakes have irregular shapes. The area covered by these features needs to be calculated.
When calculating the area for such features we can use:
- Use of rectangles and triangles or division method.
  - An irregular area is divided into smaller regular shapes such as triangles and rectangles and circles depending on the shape of the feature provided on the maps.
  - Calculate the area of each shape.
  - Add the areas to come up the total area of the irregular shape.
- Use of strips.
  - It involves dividing the area into rectangular strips of the same width.
  - The area of each strip is calculated separately.
  - The areas of all the strips are added together.
  - For example, in the following field in a map,
  - Find the length of each strip, calculate the area of each and add all the areas of the rectangle strips.
- Use of grid squares.
  - This methos is used in most topographical maps which always have grid squares formed by eastings and northings and they are drawn to a scale of 1:50,000 with each square representing an area of $1km^2$ .
  - To calculate area of an irregular shape on the map, use the following procedure.
  - Mark complete squares and record their number, multiply the total number with $1km^2$ .
  - Calculate half squares using different marks, the total number of half squares should be divided by 2 and then multiplied by $1km^2$ .
  - Add the total area of complete squares to the total area of the half squares to get the total area of the feature.
  - Total complete squares =18
  - 18 x $1km^2$ = $18 km^2$
  - Total number of half squares =19
  - Divide by 2= 9.5
  - 9. 5 x $1km^2$ = $9.5km^2$
  - To get total area of the shaped
  - Add total area of complete squares to the total are of half squares = $18km^2$ + $9.5km^2$ = $27.5km^2$ .

Methods of representing relief on topographical maps

Relief is the physical appearance of the land surface in terms of shape, size, height above sea level (elevation), and slope.
Earth's surface consists of water bodies, landforms, and rocks.
Relief is the difference between the highest and lowest elevations.
Features are represented using different methods on topographical maps

Ways in which vegetation is represented on a topographical map

Colouring – different colours are used to represent different types vegetation.
Symbols – different symbols can be used to represent different types of vegetation such as trees, crops among others.
Text label -labels with text explaining the type of vegetation can be used.

Interpreting Physical features on a map

Topographical features have numerous physical features indicated on them and represented differently.
The relief features are widely shown by means of contours.
Contours on the maps occupy patterns with respect to the shape of the landforms (relief features).
Relief on topographical maps are represented using different lines.
The lines are arranged differently depending on the type of relief being represented
Relief feature Descriptions.
Lines showing a hill are represented by concentric circles (moving towards the centre) The circles indicate elevation of the hill, with the smallest circle at the top of the hill and larger circles at the lower elevation
Lines showing a ridge are represented by contour lines that form a sloping line of high ground. The contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped, with the closed end of the contour line pointing away from high ground.
These lines are known as Hachures. They are short lines used to indicate steep slopes or depressions.
Lines representing plains or flat areas on a topographical map are represented by widely spaced contour lines.
Lines used to show cliffs appear to be close to each other or cross each other.

4.2 Weather and Climate

Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions of a particular place at a specific time, such as temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind.
Climate refers to the long-term patterns of weather in a particular area, including average temperatures, precipitation levels and other meteorological factors.

Factors influencing weather and climate in Africa

Factor Explanation
Latitude extent Most of Africa lies within the tropics, this affects the amount of radiation received and the length of the daylight hours.
Land and sea contrast Difference between land and sea temperatures can create winds that affect the climate.
Ocean current Cool ocean currents can chill the wind that blows over them and influence the climate of neighbouring shores.
Altitude
Human activities Human activities such as bush burning, swamp reclamation and deforestation can lead to the disappearance of vegetation and affect climate.
Relief Environmental factors such as wind can create variations within climate
DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATIC REGIONS IN AFRICA.

Characteristics of Equatorial Climate

Temperatures are very high throughout the year, averaging to about $26^0 C$ .
The hottest months in the year are march and September when the sun is overhead at the equator.
Daily temperature range is very small (about $3^0C$ .)
Humidity us high throughout the year.
It mainly receives convectional rainfall.
The rain falls mainly in the afternoons.
Rainfall falls mainly over a short period of time, about 15-20 minutes.
The rainfall is heavy and falls throughout the year, averaging about 2,000 mm.

Characteristics of Tropical climate

Found alongside east African coast.
High rainfall is experienced ranging between 100mm to 2000mm per year.
There is moderate temperature of about $22^0 C$ due to low altitude.
The region receives convectional rainfall due to nearness to large water bodies.
There is high humidity throughout the year due to high rate of evaporation.
It has two main seasons wet and dry.

Modified equatorial climate

Mostly located close to large water bodies.
Experiences long rains between march to may and short rains between October to December.

Modified tropical climate

Mostly located in the high lands of Africa such as the Ethiopian highlands, East Africa rift highlands, Kenya and Tanzanian highlands.

Desert climate

Also known as a rid climate.
Evaporation rate are high making it difficult for plants to survive.
Hot and dry winds cause low rainfall.
It is experienced in areas such as Sahara Desert, Nubian desert and