Andrew Jackson's Presidency: The Rise of the Second Party System and the Assertion of Executive Power
The Election of and the "Corrupt Bargain"
Context of the Election:
The election of is regarded as one of the most controversial in American political history.
At the time, the Jeffersonian Republicans were the dominant party, but a divide was emerging between two factions: the National Republicans and the Democratic Republicans.
Andrew Jackson was a major candidate in this election.
Election Results and the House Decision:
Jackson won the popular vote.
Jackson won a simple majority of the Electoral College, but not the clear majority required to secure the presidency. The combined electoral votes of the other candidates surpassed his total.
As a result, the election was shifted to the House of Representatives for a final decision.
Henry Clay as Kingmaker:
Henry Clay, a candidate who clearly would not win the presidency himself, held significant influence in the House.
Clay threw his support behind John Quincy Adams.
Consequently, the House elected John Quincy Adams as president.
The Allegation of a "Corrupt Bargain":
Following Adams’s victory, he appointed Henry Clay as Secretary of State.
Jackson supporters labeled this arrangement the "Corrupt Bargain," alleging that Clay traded his support for the cabinet position.
While the appointments occurred as suspected, there is no historical evidence of direct collusion or a specific bargain between the two.
The process followed the constitutional requirements and was legal, regardless of how distasteful it appeared to Jackson’s base.
The Election of :
Jackson’s supporters remained dedicated and worked for years to secure his eventual victory.
In , Andrew Jackson successfully defeated John Quincy Adams in a convincing election.
Redefining the Presidency and Executive Power
Assertion of Executive Authority:
Jackson changed the nature of the presidency by asserting executive power more aggressively than any of his predecessors.
He utilized major issues—specifically the Bank of the United States—to redefine the boundaries of presidential authority.
Political Philosophy:
Jackson emerged from the Jeffersonian Republican tradition but emphasized a more "democratic" (small-d) and populist approach.
He was determined to eliminate what he perceived as corruption in Washington, D.C.
Elimination of the National Debt:
Jackson held a strong personal opposition to national debt.
He remains the only President of the United States to have paid off the national debt in its entirety during his term.
The Nullification Crisis
The Tariff of ("Tariff of Abominations"):
Passed before Jackson took office, this tariff significantly raised the aggregate tariff rate.
Southerners, particularly those in South Carolina, loathed the legislation. They believed it was designed to benefit Northern manufacturers at the expense of Southern agriculture, particularly the cotton industry.
John C. Calhoun’s Position:
Calhoun, the Vice President from South Carolina, was in a difficult political position; he had presidential ambitions but needed to protect his home state's interests.
He anonymously authored the South Carolina Exposition and Protest.
The State Compact Theory and Nullification:
Calhoun’s essay was a logical outgrowth of Jefferson’s state compact theory.
It articulated that if a state opposed federal legislation, it could call a special convention.
This convention could demand that the law be withdrawn or that a constitutional amendment be established to guarantee its legality.
Calhoun viewed nullification as a way to preserve the Union by protecting state interests, rather than a move toward secession at that time.
The Conflict with Jackson:
South Carolina passed an Ordinance of Nullification, declaring that the federal tariff would not be collected in their state as of a certain date.
In December , Jackson issued the "Nullification Proclamation."
Jackson labeled nullification an "impractical absurdity" and argued that it would destroy the Union, asking what foundation the Union would have if any state could simply nullify federal law.
Resolution and the Compromise of :
Calhoun resigned as Vice President due to his estrangement from Jackson and was elected to the Senate to continue his opposition.
Henry Clay, known as the "Great Compromiser," fashioned a compromise tariff.
The compromise stipulated that the tariff rate would be lowered over a period of years, which satisfied South Carolina.
While South Carolina rescinded its nullification of the tariff, it symbolicly nullified Jackson’s "Force Bill" (the bill granting him authority to use the Army and Navy to enforce the law) to maintain its stance on constitutional interpretation.
The War Against the Bank of the United States
Jackson’s Hostility to Banks:
Jackson held a frontier-based antipathy toward large banking institutions, specifically the Second Bank of the United States.
Nicholas Biddle, the bank’s president, tried to win over Jackson by claiming the bank helped all Americans. Biddle even scheduled the final national debt payment to coincide with the anniversary of Jackson’s victory at the Battle of New Orleans.
The Recharter Conflict ():
Henry Clay and Nicholas Biddle pushed for the early recharter of the Bank in , an election year.
Clay believed this was a win-win situation: if Jackson vetoed it, Clay believed he could override the veto or use the issue to alienate Jackson's supporters. If Jackson didn’t veto, he would lose his populist base.
The Veto and Election of :
Jackson vetoed the recharter and issued a stunning rebuke.
He called the bank a "tool of potentates," noted its foreign investment, and argued it was unconstitutional and a tool for "stock jobbers."
Jackson won a resounding victory over Henry Clay in the election of , viewing his win as a popular mandate to destroy the bank.
Destruction of the Bank and "Pet Banks":
Jackson ordered his Treasury Secretary to stop depositing federal funds into the Bank of the United States.
He fired Treasury Secretaries who refused until he found one who would comply.
Federal funds were instead placed in regional banks, which critics labeled Jackson’s "Pet Banks," alleging they were used for political favors.
The Censure and the "Tribune of the People":
The Senate, led by Henry Clay, censured Jackson for his actions regarding the bank and the removal of the Treasury Secretary.
Jackson responded by declaring himself the "Tribune of the People," arguing he was elected directly by Americans to execute their will.
Clay criticized this, noting the President is elected by the Electoral College, not directly by the people, and accused Jackson of being a "demagogue" and a "man on horseback" seeking king-like power.
The Second Party System: Democrats and Whigs
Jackson’s View of Presidential Power:
Jackson argued that if Congress could not muster a majority to override his veto, his constitutional interpretation prevailed.
He effectively claimed that the executive branch held more practical power than Congress unless a supermajority existed.
Formation of the Whig Party:
The anti-Jackson coalition, consisting of former National Republicans and Clay supporters, formed a new party.
Henry Clay named them the "Whig Party," a reference to the English Whigs who historically opposed royal tyranny.
This established the "Second Party System," featuring the Democrats (no longer called Democratic Republicans) against the Whigs.
Evolution of the Political Landscape:
The Democratic party became the name for Jackson’s movement.
The Whigs would eventually win the presidency in .
Note: The mid- century Republican Party of Abraham Lincoln is distinct and not the same as the earlier Republican factions mentioned in this era.