Identity and Personality - Lecture Notes

Social psychologists study how our social lives influence self-perception.
Focus is on the influence of others' views on our social roles and group memberships.
Asks the question: "Who are you?"

Self-concept: Awareness of ourselves as distinct from others, answering "Who am I?"
Self-schema: A self-given label with associated qualities (e.g., athlete).
- Qualities may vary based on culture, socioeconomic status, etc.
Self-concept includes appraisal of past and future selves.
Self-concept and identity are related but distinct.
Identity: Components of self-concept related to group membership.
Multiple identities exist within a single self-concept (e.g., religious affiliation, sexual orientation).
Identities may not always be compatible; people adapt identities to different social situations.

Gender identity: Appraisal of oneself on scales of masculinity and femininity.
Masculinity and femininity are separate dimensions.
Androgyny: High scores on both masculinity and femininity scales.
Undifferentiated: Low scores on both scales.
Gender identity is usually established by age three but can change.
Gender schema theory: Gender identity components are transmitted through culture.
Gender identity is not necessarily tied to biological sex or sexual orientation.
Some cultures recognize a third gender (e.g., falafafine in Samoa).

Ethnic identity: Part of identity associated with racial/ethnic group membership.
Shared ancestry, cultural heritage, and language are common.
Kenneth and Mamie Clark (1947) study:
- Examined ethnic self-concepts in white and Black children.
- Doll preference task (white vs. black doll).
- Initial results: majority of children preferred the white doll.
- Highlights: This pointed out the negative result of racism towards Black children at the time.
- Subsequent research: Black children hold more positive views of their ethnicity now which represents societal changes.
Nationality: Based on political borders and shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols.
Nationality need not be tied to ethnicity or legal citizenship.
Symbols are important in both ethnic and national identity.

Identity categories include age, class, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, etc.
Identities are organized in a hierarchy of salience.
Salience: The importance and prominence of an identity in a given situation.
Situation dictates which identity is most important.
Salience is determined by:
- Investment in the identity.
- Rewards and gratification associated with the identity.
- Self-esteem associated with the identity.

Self-concept plays a role in how we evaluate ourselves.
Self-discrepancy theory: Differences between selves lead to negative feelings.
- Actual self: How we currently see ourselves.
- Ideal self: Person we want to be.
- Ought self: How others think we should be.
- Closer selves = higher self-esteem.
Low self-esteem: Critical of themselves, take criticism poorly, believe acceptance depends on success.
- More likely to use drugs, be pessimistic, and give up easily.
Self-efficacy: Belief in our ability to succeed, varies by activity.
- High self-efficacy: More motivated in tasks.
- Overconfidence: Taking on tasks for which we are not ready.
- Learned helplessness: Perceived lack of control over outcomes, related to depression.
Locus of control: How we characterize the influences in our lives.
- Internal locus of control: We control our own fate.
- External locus of control: Events are caused by luck or outside influences.
  - Example: A runner who loses a race.
    - Internal attribution: "I didn't train hard enough."
    - External attribution: "The track was wet."

Happiest individuals have:
- High self-esteem.
- View themselves as effective people.
- Feel in control of their destinies.
- See themselves as living up to their expectations.