Perceiving Groups and Stereotypes

Stereotypes: Oversimplified and widely held beliefs about a particular group of people. They often lead to generalized assumptions that may not accurately reflect reality.
Prejudice: A negative attitude towards members of a specific group, often based on stereotypes. It involves preconceived opinions that are not based on reason or actual experience.
Sexism: Prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender, often manifesting in the belief that one gender is superior to another.
Racism: Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against individuals of a different race based on the belief that one’s own race is superior.

Definition: Any behavior directed against individuals because of their identification with a particular group.

Definition of Group: Two or more individuals perceived to be connected based on:
- a) Direct interactions with one another.
- b) Joint membership in a social category (e.g., race, religion).
- c) A common fate (experiencing similar outcomes or challenges).

How do they start?
- Through a process of social categorization, where individuals naturally sort and classify people, including forming groups.

Definition: The tendency to view members of one's own group (ingroup) more favorably than those of other groups (outgroup).
Outgroup Homogeneity Bias: A phenomenon where outgroup members are perceived as being all the same, lacking individual differences, which contrasts with the varied perceptions held for ingroup members.

Children are taught about in-groups and out-groups from an early age, with strong perceptions related to race developing by ages 2 or 3.
Stereotypes Defined: Beliefs that associate specific groups of people with particular traits.

Conducted by Kenneth & Mamie Phipps Clark: In a doll study where children were asked about their preferences:
- 67% of children chose the white doll to play with.
- 59% identified the white doll as nice.
- 59% associated the black doll with negative traits.
Findings: The study indicated that black children had internalized societal racism by age 5, influencing their self-perception and identity.

Brown v. Board of Education: Landmark case that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.
- Background: Plessy legalizing segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.
- Impact: The 9-0 decision, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, cited Clark’s work to argue that segregation was harmful to children and emotionally damaging.

Prompt: What stereotypes do you hold about gay men? Explore personal reflections on the roots of such beliefs.

Observations: When a group's status is threatened, perceptions of the ingroup may shift toward in-group homogeneity, contrasting the previous outgroup homogeneity bias.

Definition: The tendency to seek out and confirm existing biases.
- Example: If someone believes another person dislikes opera, they will avoid discussing it, reinforcing their bias.

Definition: A psychological phenomenon where an exceptional behavior (e.g., seeing a nun gambling) stands out due to its deviation from stereotype expectations, thereby appearing more extreme.

Findings from a “telephone” experiment illustrated how participants altered the perception of individuals based on stereotypes projected onto them, reversing the original appearance and behavior.

Overview: A sex discrimination lawsuit where Ann Hopkins's behaviors aligned with male managers yet were perceived as extreme because of her gender.
Outcome: She ultimately won her case before the Supreme Court, highlighting systemic bias in professional standards based on gender.

Definition: A cognitive bias where individuals overemphasize and recall slight correlations that support their stereotypes.

Definition: Instead of adjusting stereotypes, individuals create new subcategories for those who fall outside the norm.

Definition: A situation where an individual's biased beliefs lead them to behave in ways that confirm their stereotypes.

Definition: Postulates that competition for limited resources leads to intergroup conflict, sustaining prejudice against outgroups.
Historical Context: Notable instances in American history highlight the animosity directed towards various immigrant groups due to perceived job competition.

Definition: We favor ingroups as a means to boost self-esteem, which may manifest in exclusive behaviors toward outgroups.