AP Psychology Exam Cram

AP Exam Cram Packet - 2024/2025

Research Design & Vocabulary

Causative Explanation: Must be able to be supported by research.
Operational Definition: A clear, precise, and measurable definition of variables used in the study.
Descriptive Data: Numerical data, ideally using appropriate statistics.
Generalize: The extent to which research findings can be applied to the wider population.
Sample: The specific group (or person) specifically being studied.

Research Designs

Correlation: Identify relationships between variables. Correlation DOES NOT equal causation.
- Third Variable Problem: An unmeasured variable is actually responsible for the observed correlation (e.g., ice cream sales and crime rates both increase in summer due to a third variable: temperature).
- Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable increases.
- Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
- Correlation Coefficient: Represented by $r$ , indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship.
  - Ranges from -1 to +1.
  - The closer the absolute value of $r$ is to 1, the stronger the correlation.
  - Regardless of the correlation direction, the coefficient cannot be less than -1 or greater than 1.
  - Tighter clusters on a scatterplot indicate stronger correlations.
  - A correlation near zero indicates no correlation.
Experiment: Purposefully manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.
- Due to ethical concerns, experiments are not always possible. For example, if random assignment might be considered unethical (e.g. assigning children to abuse situations).
- Independent Variable (IV): The variable purposefully manipulated by the researcher.
- Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
- Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (manipulation of the IV); can have multiple experimental groups.
- Control Group: May receive a placebo or no treatment; serves as a baseline for comparison.
- Placebo Effect: Any observed effect on behavior caused by a placebo.
  - Single Blind: Only the participant is blind to their condition assignment.
  - Double-Blind: Neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the condition assignments, which can control for experimenter bias.
- Confound: An error/flaw accidentally introduced in a study (also called a confounding variable).
- Random Assignment: Assigns participants to conditions (control or experimental) at random.
  - Increases the chance of equal representation among groups.
  - Allows for cause-and-effect conclusions.
Other Study Types:
- Naturalistic Observation: Observing people or animals in their natural settings.
  - Advantage: Real-world validity.
  - Disadvantage: No cause and effect can be established.
- Case Study: Studies one person (usually) in great detail.
  - Advantage: Collects lots of information.
  - Disadvantage: No cause and effect can be established.
- Meta-Analysis: Combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes.

Statistics

Descriptive Statistics: Show shape of the data.
- Measures of Central Tendency:
  - Mean: Average (use in normal distribution).
  - Median: Middle number (use in skewed distribution).
  - Mode: Occurs most often.
  - Bimodal: Has two modes, which often indicates distinct subgroups (e.g., good/bad scores).
- Skews: Created by outliers.
  - Negative Skew: Mean is to the left (negative side).
  - Positive Skew: Mean is to the right.
- Measure of Variation
  - Range: Distance between the smallest and largest number.
  - Standard Deviation: Average amount the scores are spread from the mean. A bigger number means more spread.
Inferential Statistics: Establishes significance (meaningfulness) of results.
- Statistical Significance: Indicates whether results are likely due to the independent variable manipulation rather than chance.
  - Expressed as a p-value (p < 0.05 is generally considered statistically significant; smaller is better).
- Effect Size: Indicates the practical significance of the data (bigger is better).

Ethical Guidelines (IRB Approval Needed for Human Subjects)

Confidentiality: Names kept secret.
Informed Consent: Must agree to be part of study.
Informed Assent: Minors AND their parents must agree.
Debriefing: Must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception).
Deception: Must be warranted.
No Harm: No mental/physical harm.

Additional Vocabulary

Surveys: Usually turned into correlational studies.
- Subject to self-report bias - errors when you collect survey data due to:
  - Social Desirability: People lie to look good.
  - Wording Effects: How you frame the question can impact your answers.
Random Sample (Selection): Method for choosing participants for your study.
- Everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability
- Do not mix random sample and random assignment. Sample = generalize. Assignment = cause/effect
Representative Sample: Sample mimics the general population (ethnic, gender, age).
Convenience Sample: Select participants on availability-less representative and less generalizability this way
Sampling Bias: Sample isn't representative, due to conv. sampling.
Cultural Norms: Behaviors of a particular group can influence research results.
Experimenter Bias/Participant Bias: Experimenter/participant expectations influence the outcome.
Cognitive Bias: Bias in thinking/judgement
- Confirmation Bias: Find info that supports our preexisting beliefs
- Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
- Overconfidence: Overestimate of knowledge/abilities
Hawthorne Effect: People change behavior when watched.
Research Need: Peer Review and adequate sample sizes

Cognitive Biases and Thinking

Functional Fixedness: Can only see one (common) use for an item; cannot think outside of the box.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continue something because you're already invested, even when stopping would be more beneficial.
Gambler's Fallacy: Believe something is more likely to happen because it's "due" -- the dice have no memory.
Divergent Thinking: Ability to think about many different things at once (creative); hindered by functional fixedness.
Convergent Thinking: Limits creativity; focuses on one answer.
Executive Functioning: Generating, organizing, planning, carrying out goal-directed behaviors.

Memory

Encoding: Getting info into memory.
- Automatic Encoding: Requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?).
- Effortful Encoding: Requires work (school).
Levels (Depth) of Processing: The more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered.
- Structural Encoding (Shallow): Emphasis on physical structure.
- Phonemic Encoding (Intermediate): Emphasis on what words sound like.
- Semantic Encoding (Deep): Emphasis on meaning of the words.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Strategies to enhance encoding.
- Imagery: Attaching images to information makes it easier to remember.
- Dual Encoding: Using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo + words).
- Chunking: Break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #).
- Mnemonics: Shortcuts to help us remember info easier.
  - Acronyms: Using letters to remember something (PEMDAS).
  - Method of Loci: Using locations to remember a list of items in order.
Context-Dependent Memory: Where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing).
State-Dependent Memory: The physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high).
Mood-Congruent Memory: Remember happy events when happy, sad when sad.
Forgetting Curve: Recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten.
- Distributed Practice (Spacing Effect): Review a little every night (resets forgetting curve).
- Massed Practice: Cramming.
- Testing Effect: Quizzing over material periodically.
Storage: Retaining info over time.
- Multi-Store Model: Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model.
- Sensory Memory: Stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention).
  - Iconic Memory: Visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds.
  - Echoic Memory: Auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds.
- Short Term Memory: Info passes from sensory memory to STM - lasts 30 secs, and can remember $7 \pm 2$ items.
  - Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating the info resets the clock.
- Long Term Memory: Lasts a lifetime
  - Explicit: Require conscious effort:
    - Episodic: Events
    - Semantic: Facts
  - Implicit: Automatic, no effort needed:
    - Classical Conditioning
    - Priming: Info that is seen earlier "primes" you to remember something later on.
    - Procedural: Skills (muscle memory).
- Working Memory Model: Splits STM into 2-visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A "central executive" puts it together before passing it to LTM
Other Odd Types of Memory
- Prospective Memory: Remembering you need to do something (pick up milk).
- Autobiographical Memory: Memory for your personal history - combo of episodic and semantic.
  - Superior Autobiographical: Rare condition - ppl have extra detailed memories
Memory Organization
- Hierarchies: Memory is stored according to a clusters of related info
- Categorically: Stored in categories
- Semantic Networks: Webs of semi-related info.
  - "Tip of the tongue phenomenon" - Can't remember the name of something because you're stuck elsewhere in your semantic network
- Schemas: Frameworks that organize info
  - Assimilation: Incorporate new info into existing schema -- Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
  - Accommodation: Adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information -- Cat and dogs = different.
Memory Storage
- Acetylcholine: Neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic.
- Memories before age 3: Are unreliable (infantile amnesia) - hippocampus still forming.
- Cerebellum: For implicit / procedural memories.
- Amygdala: For emotional memories.
- Frontal Lobe: For encoding and retrieval.
- Long-term potentiation: Neural basis of memory connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons).
- Memory consolidation: Memories are strengthened and made more stable with time
Retrieval: Taking info out of storage.
- Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best.
  - Primacy happens be the info got moved to long term memory
  - Recency because its still in your short term

Sensation & Perception

Color "Deficiency": Damage to, or missing - cones or ganglion cells
- Red/green is most common
- Dichromatism: Missing 1 cone
- Monochromatism: Only have rods
Auditory System:
- Properties of Sound:
  - Wavelength: Distance between peaks - pitch
    - Long waves = low pitch
    - Narrow waves = high pitch
  - Amplitude: Height of wave - loudness
    - Short waves soft
    - Tall waves = loud
- Theories of Hearing: all occur in the cochlea
  - Place Theory: Location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
  - Frequency Theory: Rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
  - volley principle: groups of neurons fire APs out of sync.
- General Hearing Stuff:
  - Sound Localization: Which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound.
  - Conduction Deafness: Damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss
  - Sensorineural: Damage to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve - usually due to old age and loud noise
Other Senses:
- Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear).
- Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & movement wo looking.
- Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a "gate" to control how much pain is experience. Pain is both mental and physical
- Hot": Activation of warm and cold receptors
- Taste (Gustation): 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily)
  - Tongue, mouth, and brain process taste
  - Density of taste receptors makes ppl super tasters, medium tasters, or nontasters
  - Sensory interaction creates taste - wo smell taste isn't as strong or is absent
- Smell (Olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus
  - Pheromones produce chemical signals within a species for attraction
Cognition Pillar:
- Perception:
  - Top-Down Processing: Whole idea (prior expectations) → smaller parts (painting w/ faces)
  - Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts (sensory info) → Whole idea (dog of bunch of dots)
  - Schemas: Preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
  - Perceptual Set: Tendency to see something as part of a group - speeds up signal processing
    *Gestalt Psychology: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts
    *Gestalt Principles:
    *Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground)
    *Closure: mentally fill in gaps
    *Proximity: group things together that appear near each other
    *Similarity: group things together based off of looks
  - Constancies: Recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
  - Apparent Movement: Objects can appear moving when they aren't (flip books, blinking lights)
  - Selective attention: focus on one and block out other things
    *Inattentional Blindness: failure w notice something added b/c you're focused on another task (gorilla video)
    *Change Blindness: fail to notice a change in the scene (curtain changes color)
    *Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren't previously paying attention
  - Binocular Depth Cues: (he both eyes make up a 3D image)
    *Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth
    *Convergence: Eyes strain more (look inward) as objects draw nearer
  - Monocular Depth Cues: (we form a 3D image from a 2D image
    *Interposition: overlapping images appear closer
    *Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar size, the smaller one is further away
    *Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks)
    *Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away
    *Texture Gradient: coarser objects=
  - Thinking & Problem Solving
    *Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
    *Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example
    *Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)
    *Heuristics: short cut strategies
    *Representative Heuristic: make a judgment based on your experiences (like a stereotype) - assume someone must be a librarian b/c they're quiet
    *Availability heuristic: make a judgement based on the first thing that pops in your head (assume planes are dangerous b/c crash in the news)
    *Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think
    *Mental Set - keep using one strategy to solve a problem - cannot think out of box.

Brain & Consciousness

Association Areas: Receive input from multiple areas/lobes to integrate info
- Left Hemisphere Only: Damage to these results in aphasia (damaged speech)
  - Broca's Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca - Broken speech)
  - Wernicke's Area: Can't comprehend speech (Wernicke's - what?)
- Corpus Callosum: Bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres -- sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures -- leads to "split-brain patients."
  - Split-Brain Experiments:
    - Image shown to R eye processed in L hemi - patient can say what they saw; image shown to L eye processed in R hemi, can't say what was seen
Brain Plasticity: Brain changes via damage and through experience
Endocrine System: Sends hormones throughout the body
- Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus - Releases growth hormones
Brain Research:
- EEG: Shows broad brain activity - not specific electrical output
- fMRI: Show brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen
- Lesion: Destruction of brain tissue
Diseases & Disorders to Know:
- Multiple Sclerosis: Destruction of myelin sheath, disrupts APs, causes impaired mobility, paralysis, pain
- Myasthenia Gravis: Acetylcholine blocked, disrupts APs, causes poor motor control and paralysis
- Blindsight: Caused by lesions to primary visual cortex, ppl can "see" ie catch a ball etc despite being blind- evidence for association areas
- Prosopagnosia: Face blindness -- damage to occipital and/or temporal lobe
- Broca's Aphasia: Damage to Broca's area - stuttered speech
- Wernicke's Aphasia: Damage to Wernicke's - jumbled speech
- Phantom Limb Pain: Pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) - caused by brain plasticity
- Epilepsy: Seizures-- too much / little Glutamate / GABA
- Alzheimer's: Destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory loss

Sleep

Consciousness: Awareness of cognitive processes (asleep or awake?)
Circadian Rhythms: 24ish hour biological clock of body temp & sleep
- Disrupting it makes your internal clock get out of sync (jet lag and shift work do this)
  - Intro vocab:
    - Beta Waves: Awake (you betta be awake for the exam)
    - Alpha Waves: High amp, drowsy
  - NREM (non REM) stages:
    - NREM 1: Light sleep, has hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling)
    - NREM 2: Bursts of sleep spindles
    - NREM 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep
  - Rapid Eye Movement (REM): Dreaming, cognitive processing
    - Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle.
    - REM lasts longer throughout the night, deep sleep decreases
    - REM is "paradoxical" be your HR and brain is active - but your body is relaxed
  - REM Rebound: After sleep disruptions and/or lack of REM sleep you'll have more / more intense REM sleep
  - DREAM THEORIES:
    *Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy - stimulating lodged memories in limbic sys & brain stem. Dreams start random then develop meaning. Its Neural theory.
    *Consolidation dream theory: brain is combining and processing memories for storage
  - WHY IS SLEEP NECESSARY
    *Consolidation-storage of memories
    *Restoration-helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy
  - SLEEP DISORDERS
    *Insomnia: Inability to fall/stay asleep (due to stress/anxiety)
    *Somnambulism (sleep walking) - happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM
    *Narcolepsy: fall into REM out of nowhere treated w/ stimulants
    *Sleep Apnea: stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity usually)
    *REM behavior disorder: malfunction of mechanism that paralyze you during REM

Sensation

Sensation-receive stimulus energy from environment
Transduction-convert that info into APs
Perception-brain interprets the info
Absolute Threshold: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there)
Just noticeable difference: can tell the difference b/w a stronger and weaker stimulus or two similar things (coke vs pepsi, did it get stronger?)
WEBER'S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion.(the stronger thing, the more you have to add to tell the difference)
Synesthesia: "disorder" where your senses blend (see sounds, etc)
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (ex. nose blindness)- sensory receptors respond less (get tired)
Visual System:

Lens focuses light on retina
Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods/cones/ ganglion cells)
Fovea-area of best vision(cones here)
Rods - black/white, dark adaptation; way more rods than cones; located along sides of retina
Cones - color, bright light (red, green, blue) (only in the fovea)

Ganglion cells - create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here)
Blind spot- occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye-

Visual System Vocab:

Accommodation :lens changes curvature to focus images on retina
Nearsightedness- better vision near
Farsightedness- better vision far

Theories of Color Vision:
Trichromatic - three cones for receiving color
Blue-short waves
Green-medium waves
Red-long waves
Opponent Process - complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells- explains why we see an after image
Red/green
Blue/yellow
Black/white
Key word is loss

Heredity, Environment and Biological Basis

NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system
Heredity vs Environment
- Evolutionary psycs-study how natural selection influences behavior
- Heredity (nature) how genes influence your behavior
- Environment (nurture) how outside situations influence your behavior
  - school
  - NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH
  - Twin /Adoption Studiess
    - Genetics: identical twin will have a high percentage of also developing a disease
    - Environment: identical twins raised in different environments
Nervous System
- Central NS: Brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral NS: Rest of the NS- relays to Central NS
  - Somatic NS. Voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons
  - Autonomic NS involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc) contains the
    - Sympathetic: Fight or flight Generally activates exception digestion
    - Parasympathetic NS: Rest/digest Generally inhibits-exception digestion
Neuron and Neural Firing
- Neuron: Basic cell of the NS
  - Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs
  - Axon: AP travels down this
  - Myelin Sheath: Speeds up AP down axon, protects axon
  - Synapse: Gap b/w neurons
  - Sensory Neurons: Receive sense from environ.-send signal to brain
  - Motor Neurons: Signals to move-signals from brain
  - Interneurons: Cells in spinal cord /brain -responsible for reflex arc
  - Reflex arc: important stimuli skips brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (like on a hot flame)
  - Glia Support cells: give nutrients and surround neurons
  - Neurons Fire with an Action Potential:
    - Ions move across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon
    - Resting potential
      - -70mv charge when not doing anything
    - Depolarizations- charge of neuron briefly switches from - to pos
    - Threshold stimulus energy must reach this point to starty potential
    - All or none principle stimulus intensity or speed of the response
    - Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toller resets)
Neurotransmitters (NT): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons. Classified as excitatory (increase APs in other neurons) or inhibitory (decrease APs)
- GABA: Major inhibitory NT
- Glutamate: Major excitatory NT (glutes excite you!)
- Dopamine: Reward (short term) & fine movement in hypothalamus, assoc. w/ addiction
- Serotonin: Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep-in amygdala, too little assoc. w/ depression
- Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement-in hippocampus, assoc w/ Alzheimer's
- Norepinephrine: Sympathetic NS-too little assoc. w/ depression
- Endorphins: Decrease pain
- Substance P: Pain regulation abnormality increases pain and inflammation)
  - Psychoactive Drugs
    *Depressants: Decrease NS activity alcohol
    Stimulants: Increase NS activity caffeine & cocaine
    Hallucinogens: hallucinations and altered perceptions Marijuana
    Opioids: relieve pain endorphins agonsts heroin
    *Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
    Addiction: must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
    Withdrawal: symptoms associated with sudden stoppage
The Brain
- Cerebellum: Movement, balance, coordination, procedural memory (walking a tightrope balancing a bell)
- Brainstem / Medulla: Vital organs (HR BP, breathing)
- Reticular Activating System: Alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement
- Cerebral Cortex: Outer portion of the brain-higher order thought processes -includes limbic system, lobes, corpus callosum
  - Limbic System
    *Amygdala: emotions, fear
    *Hippocampus: episodic and semantic memory (if you saw a hippo on campus you'd remember it!)
    *Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors link to endocrine system, homeostasis
    *Thalamus: relay center for all but smell
    Pituitary gland: talks w/ endocrine system and hypothalamus-release hormones
  - Lobes
    *Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, executive function-includes the:
    *Prefrontal cortex: front of frontal lobe executive function
    *Motor Cortex: back of frontal lobe map of our motor receptors- controls skeletal movement
    Parietal Lobe: sensations and touch controls association areas - incudes
    Somatosensory Cortex: map of our touch receptors
    Temporal Lobe: hearing and face recognition, language
    Occipital Lobe: vision
    Hormones: if not in the nervous system, it's a hormone

Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, executive function-includes the:

Occipital Lobe: vision

Frontal Lobe decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, executive function-includes the:

Occipital Lobe: vision
Axytocin: love, bonding, childbirth, lactation
Adrenaline: fight/flight
Leptin: makes you full (stops hunger)
Ghrelin: makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin)
Melatonin: sleep

Agonist: drug that mimics a NT
Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT
Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron.(antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) -treatment for depression
orderliness, perfectionism, control (what people think of as OCD)
Of FaultS