Navigation Notes: Pilotage, Dead Reckoning, VOR, ADF, RNAV, LORAN, INS, GPS
PILOTAGE AND DEAD RECKONING
Overview and purpose
Visual navigation historically relied on landmarks and roads; pilots then adopted ocean navigation techniques (pilotage and dead reckoning) for over-water or featureless terrain.
Pilotage and dead reckoning are still the most common methods for light aircraft navigation and are usually used together as cross-checks.
Three basic navigation tasks:
create a course,
fly the airplane to stay on the course,
perform position checks to verify you are on course.
Finding safety if lost is an important element.
Key terms
Line of Position (LOP): a line along which the aircraft could be located; does not fix a single position.
Fix: intersection of two different LOPs, which establishes a definite position.
These concepts apply to radio navigation as well as pilotage and dead reckoning.
PILOTAGE (visual navigation using landmarks and charts)
Pre-WW I pilots relied on landmarks; post-WW I, aeronautical charts enable visual navigation over most areas.
Sectional charts are preferred for pilotage due to detail and scale; must be current.
Complications to consider today: special-use airspace, Mode C veils; must still have a good map and ground view.
Chart setup and plotting a course
Obtain correct charts (sectionals) and ensure they are current.
For long routes, arrange charts to view the entire route; align edges by matching latitude/longitude lines.
If departure and destination are on opposite sides of the same chart, follow the margin instructions to plot the course.
[Figure 9-1] Chart instructions provide a step-by-step route plotting process crossing chart edges.
COURSE CONSIDERATIONS
Review the entire route for areas to avoid (special-use airspace, high mountains, large bodies of open water).
In sparse landmark areas, move the course slightly to include unmistakable landmarks.
In many cases the direct route between departure and destination is preferred.
Draw a tentative straight line between airports to help refine the course; use a plotter or ruler to measure distance in nautical miles with the chart scale.
Use winds aloft forecasts and the POH to estimate fuel requirements (include takeoff, climb, and reserves); be generous with reserves due to wind shifts.
If fuel seems insufficient, adjust the course to airports with fuel service; call FBOs to confirm fuel availability and pump access.
Information on FBOs at specific airports is available in several commercial publications.
CHECKPOINTS (landmarks for navigation cues)
Choose distinctive, unambiguous checkpoints (e.g., distinctive lakes, major highways crossing a river).
Checkpoints should be identifiable from the air and cannot be easily confused with other features.
Depending on altitude, you may identify landmarks several miles on either side of the course, aiding drift correction.
Avoid ambiguous features (e.g., small towns that resemble others from the air) unless reinforced by additional landmarks.
Many towns have distinctive shapes on charts; some towns have towers or other features that help identification.
Major roads are often not reliable alone due to real-world changes and similar patterns elsewhere.
Water towers may help (town names may be painted on them) but require low altitude to read; there’s a barnstorming-era tradition about circling a water tower for a ride into town.
Rivers and lakes can be good references, but seasonal changes (floods, droughts) may alter appearance from the chart.
Plan 2+ prominent checkpoints after takeoff to establish course early.
Circle checkpoints on the chart so you can locate them easily; use a pen/highlighter to mark them (avoid obscuring chart features).
Consider adding tick marks at 10–20 mile intervals to estimate distances and monitor progress.
SECTION LINES, TOWNSHIPS, AND GROUNDSPEED
Survey lines (townships) divide land into 36 sections of 1 square mile each; roads often align with section lines.
Section lines run north-south or east-west and can be used like a compass when crosswind-free.
If crossing section lines at a steady angle, you can estimate groundspeed by timing between lines; a section is 1 statute mile on each side.
Example: if you cross one section line in 30 seconds, groundspeed ≈ 120 statute miles per hour (≈ 104 knots).
FLYING THE COURSE
In flight, keep the course line on the chart aligned with your flight direction to keep landmarks in the same relative positions.
Mark checkpoints as you pass them; if you drift, identify your actual position and correct heading accordingly.
Between checkpoints, you can form lines of position from ground features to establish an intermediate fix.
When flying by pilotage, try to confirm checkpoints with multiple ground features; charts do not show every ground detail and features may have changed since the chart was updated.
DEAD RECKONING (oceanic/naval origin; wind and math-based navigation)
Dead reckoning uses calculations of time, speed, distance, and direction, without reliance on visual ground references.
Historically enabled long-distance flights (e.g., Lindbergh, Earhart).
In pilotage-dominated navigation, dead reckoning complements pilotage as a valuable backup.
COURSE AND PLOTTER USE IN DEAD RECKONING
Plot your true course on the chart with a plotter; measure distance and compute fuel needs using POH data and wind forecasts.
Use a navigation plotter (transparent with straightedge, protractor, and distance scales) to measure the true course at the meridian nearest the course center.
If the course is north-south and crosses few meridians, place the plotter on a latitude parallel and read the true course from the auxiliary scale.
When calculating, keep in mind meridians converge toward the poles; measuring near the course center minimizes error.
Use the wind correction angle (WCA) to derive the true heading from the true course:
The sign of WCA depends on wind direction relative to the course (left wind = positive or negative convention as defined by your method).
Wind effects can differ along each leg; compute a wind problem for each leg if the flight is not direct.
After plotting true course and wind corrections, determine estimated groundspeed and ETE for each leg and compute fuel needs (include reserves).
Steps for dead reckoning flight planning:
List significant checkpoints on a navigation log with leg distances and remaining distance.
Determine true airspeed and fuel consumption from the POH.
Apply wind corrections to obtain true headings for each leg.
Determine time enroute (ETE) for each leg and total ETE; consider climb vs cruise for the first leg.
Subdivide the first leg into climb and cruise portions if needed to improve accuracy.
Record radio frequencies to use; update times as you pass checkpoints.
TIME, FUEL, AND NAVIGATION LOGS
The navigation log helps organize data: leg distances, ETE, times, wind corrections, headings, fuel usage, and forecasts.
Example calculation: if the first leg distance is 60 nm and the first leg groundspeed is 120 knots, then
Track actual time enroute (ATE) as you pass checkpoints and compare to estimated times to adjust estimates for remaining legs.
If forecast winds differ from actual winds, recalculate ETE and fuel needs accordingly.
TRUE, MAGNETIC, AND HEADING VALUES
Variation (magnetic variation) is the difference between true north and magnetic north; shown on aeronautical charts by isogonic lines.
Correcting true course for variation yields magnetic course:
If variation is east (E), Magnetic Course = True Course − Variation.
If variation is west (W), Magnetic Course = True Course + Variation.
Memory aid: East variation subtracts; West variation adds (often remembered as "East is least, West is best").
Compass deviation is the deviation caused by local magnetic influences inside the airplane; correct magnetic heading to compass heading:
Compass Heading = Magnetic Heading + Deviation.
Correct order (one common approach): either apply variation first then wind, or wind then variation; both yield the same final compass heading when all factors are properly accounted for. The three key intermediates are:
True Course (TC)
Magnetic Course (MC)
True Heading (TH)
Magnetic Heading (MH)
Compass Heading (CH)
Example reading order (illustrative values):
Magnetic variation is 8° East → MC = TC − 8°; TH = TC + WCA; MH = MC + WCA; CH = MH + Deviation.
In practice: begin with TC, apply Variation to obtain MC, apply Wind to obtain TH and MH, and apply Deviation to obtain CH. If you apply wind corrections before variation, the intermediate sums will differ in notation but yield the same final CH.
Isogonic line example: variation 8° East (MC = TC − 8°); chart shows isogonic lines to guidance on how to compute MC from TC.
Figure 9-10 demonstrates a vertical stack of values showing: Compass Heading, Magnetic Heading, Magnetic Course, True Course (example: CH 288°, MH 285°, MC 280°, TC 270°).
VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES
When cruising level above 3,000 ft AGL, apply the VFR cruising altitude rule:
For magnetic courses 0° to 179°: odd thousands + 500 ft (e.g., 3,500; 5,500; 7,500; … in feet MSL).
For magnetic courses 180° to 359°: even thousands + 500 ft (e.g., 4,500; 6,500; 8,500; … in feet MSL).
Altitude choice considerations: terrain height, obstructions (towers), topography, winds, and visibility.
The rule helps separate eastbound and westbound traffic, but you must maintain continuous visual scanning for other traffic.
Note: ATC may assign other altitudes, and the cruising-altitude rule applies only to cruising flight above 3,000 ft AGL.
FUEL REQUIREMENTS (FARs)
Day VFR: carry enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing at normal cruise speed and an additional 30 minutes of fuel.
Night VFR: reserve of 45 minutes is required.
These are minimums; weather or headwinds can require larger reserves.
FLIGHT PLAN (Filing and Activation)
A thorough preflight flight plan supports safety and search-and-rescue if you fail to arrive; filed with a Flight Service Station (FSS).
Filing a VFR flight plan is not required by ATC, but it initiates a search if overdue.
File via phone, computer, or in person; provide destination, route, ETA, and number of people aboard.
Activate the plan once airborne by informing the FSS; the FSS will relay an alert to destination FSS with aircraft ID, type, destination, and ETA.
If you do not close or extend the plan within 30 minutes of ETA, the FSS will initiate a search.
If you change destination or expect delay, inform the FSS; you may close with radio or phone, or another ATC facility can relay cancellation if necessary.
For multi-leg trips, file separate flight plans for each leg (e.g., if a stop will be longer than an hour).
If you will stop for fuel or other reasons, open/activate new plans for each leg (recommended).
LOST PROCEDURES AND THE FIVE CS
Recognize loss, then follow the five Cs if lost: Climb, Communicate, Confess, Comply, Conserve.
Climb to improve ground visibility and radio range; communicate with available facilities using frequencies on charts (including RCOs at VORs).
If necessary, contact emergency frequencies (e.g., 121.5 MHz).
Confess and comply with ATC instructions; conserve fuel by reducing power and optimizing endurance.
Use the five Cs as a primary framework to regain situational awareness and safety.
SUMMARY CHECKLIST (KEY TAKEAWAYS)
Pilotage is flying by landmarks; sectional charts provide the best landmark detail for cross-country flights.
The best checkpoints are unique and cannot be easily confused with nearby features.
Use multiple cues (heading indicator, magnetic compass, and chart) to verify course.
Highlight your course line on the chart to aid following your route.
Maintain constant position awareness to reduce the chance of becoming lost.
Pure dead reckoning uses time, speed, distance, and direction; a navigation plotter and navigation logs support DR flights.
The true course must be corrected for magnetic variation, wind drift (WCA), and compass deviation to yield compass heading.
The VFR cruising altitude rule governs altitudes above 3,000 ft AGL, with east courses at odd thousands + 500 ft and west courses at even thousands + 500 ft.
Fuel reserves: 30 minutes (day) and 45 minutes (night).
A VFR flight plan provides a mechanism for search-and-rescue if overdue; close the plan upon arrival.
VOR NAVIGATION
What VOR is and how it functions
VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range) is the most common radio navigation aid in the U.S. with over 1,000 stations.
VOR signals operate in the VHF range: 108.00–117.95 MHz; reception is strictly line-of-sight and range is limited by earth curvature and terrain.
VOR/DME or VORTAC provide distance information in addition to azimuth guidance.
VOR ground stations and classes
TVOR (Terminal VOR): intended for use within ~25 nm and below 12,000 ft AGL (generally at or near airports).
LVOR (Low Altitude VOR): usable reliably up to ~40 nm from the station between 1,000 and 18,000 ft AGL.
HVOR (High Altitude VOR): range up to 14,500 ft and from 40 to 130+ nm depending on altitude (up to FL450; beyond that range declines).
VOR indicators and how to use them
VOR indicators include CDI (course deviation indicator), TO-FROM indicator, and OBS (omni bearing selector).
CDI shows whether you are on the selected course; center when on course.
TO/FROM indicates whether the aircraft is heading toward or away from the station.
OBS is used to select a course or radial; when CDI centers with a TO, the selected course is the reciprocal of the radial you are on; when centered with a FROM, you are on the radial you selected.
Interpreting VOR indications and basic procedures
To determine your position: tune to a VOR, center the CDI to a FROM indication, and read the radial at the index.
To navigate to a VOR: center the CDI with a TO indication and fly toward the station on the displayed course.
The CDI deflection scale: each dot equals ~2° of course deviation.
Reverse sensing and cone of confusion
VOR indicators sense direction relative to a station, not the aircraft’s heading; reverse sensing can occur if you set the OBS to the reciprocal course.
Always set the OBS so it generally agrees with your intended course to avoid reverse sensing.
Cone of confusion: when directly over a VOR, the TO-FROM indication may disappear or become unstable; this is a temporary no-signal zone.
Tracking, bracketing, and triangulation
Tracking: maintain the course by centering the CDI (course deviation) while crossing wind drift; use wind corrections as needed.
Bracketing: apply wind corrections by performing a series of corrections to regain the desired course in the presence of a crosswind.
Triangulation: determine your position by cross-checking two radials from two VORs; plot LOPs from both stations and find their intersection.
VOR checks and accuracy
Preflight checks: check VOR accuracy using ground checkpoints (A/FD lists) or airborne checkpoints; IFR tolerance is ±4°; airborne checks are ±6°.
VOTs (VOR Test Facilities) provide precise checks for a single radial (0° or 180° readings should be centered on FROM or TO as appropriate).
VOR/DME and navigation instruments
DME provides distance to the VOR/DME or VORTAC site; typically up to ~199 nm depending on altitude and line of sight.
DME is a separate facility even though paired with VOR; the measurement is a round-trip time measurement.
The HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator) is a combined heading indicator and VOR indicator, often with an integrated CDI, TO-FROM, and an OBS; it provides a more intuitive view compared to a standalone VOR indicator.
Practical notes
VOR radials form the basis of Victor airways; radials are expressed in degrees from magnetic north.
Always identify stations before using them (Morse or voice ident); some stations may broadcast a test signal when down for maintenance.
Maintain workload awareness near VORs; there can be high traffic and workload accumulation near VORs and airways.
DME cautions and errors
DME measures slant range; accuracy degrades when overhead the station and increases when significantly off-line; distance is not purely horizontal.
Slant range error is minimal when you are at least 1 nm horizontally for every 1,000 ft of altitude.
INTERPRETIVE NOTES ON NAVIGATION DEVICES
An HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator) is an enhanced VOR indicator with a rotating compass card and a heading indicator; it aligns the displayed course with the aircraft’s heading for easier interpretation.
An RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) combines heading with bearing pointers and can be used to display either VOR or NDB/HF indications on the same instrument.
ADF indicators (see ADF section) complement VOR by providing bearing to NDBs and some AM broadcasts; ADF indicators include fixed-card and movable-card varieties.
CHECKS AND PRACTICE
Practice VOR orientation with scenario-based figures (VOR orientation exercises) to learn how to determine position using multiple VORs.
Practice checks using VOTs to confirm 0°/180° on a FROM/TO basis.
Understand how to interpret OFF indications and how to proceed when signals are unreliable.
SUMMARY CHECKLIST (VOR)
VORs provide course guidance; VOR/DMEs and VORTACs provide distance as well.
VORs are categorized by coverage area: TVOR, LVOR, HVOR.
Radials are read from the VOR’s compass rose and are magnetic-north-based.
Always identify the station; determine your location with FROM or TO by centering the CDI accordingly.
Do not chase the needle; maintain the instrument indication and cross-check with ground features.
Use cross-checks with multiple navaids to triangulate position.
DME provides slant-range distance and is subject to line-of-sight limits and altitude-related errors.
ADF NAVIGATION (NDB and ADF basics)
What ADF navigates to
ADF navigation uses L/MF signals from NDBs (190 kHz to 535 kHz) and, in some cases, AM broadcast stations as supplemental navaids.
NDBs provide bearing information via the ADF indicator; ADF can also receive some AM broadcasts used for weather or other info.
Ground equipment and antennas
Two primary antennas: directional antenna (loop) mounted on the underside of the aircraft and a sense (nondirectional) antenna.
The ADF receiver processes signals from both antennas to determine bearing to the station.
ADF receiver controls and modes
Key controls: on/off/volume, station frequency entry, ANT/ADF/BFO modes.
ANT mode: maximum sensitivity for station identification; you can listen to Morse ID or voice transmissions; BFO mode for CW signals.
Bearing indicators
Fixed-card indicator: 0° is at the top; bearing is relative to the nose; rotates with the aircraft’s heading.
Movable-card indicator: azimuth card can be rotated to keep 0° aligned with the nose; you can read magnetic bearing to the station directly.
RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator): combines heading indicator with ADF and VOR indications, allowing two navaids to be displayed on one instrument.
ADF navigation concepts
Relative bearing (RB): the angle between the aircraft’s nose and the station bearing.
Magnetic bearing (MB) to the station: MH + RB (MH = aircraft’s magnetic heading).
Homing: fly directly toward the station by keeping the ADF needle on the nose (0° on fixed-card).
Tracking: fly a line toward or away from the station by maintaining a constant wind-corrected bearing; bracketing is used to correct for wind drift.
Wind effects: wind causes drift; determine wind correction angle (WCA) by bracketing; track to keep the bearing steady.
Night effect, thunderstorm effect, precipitation static, terrain effect, and shoreline effect can degrade ADF accuracy and reliability; mitigate with multiple navaids and cross-checks.
Practical notes
ADF limitations include range variability, signal reliability, and susceptibility to interference and environmental factors.
The relative bearing is used to derive magnetic bearing to the station when combined with the aircraft heading: MH + RB = MB.
Use RMI and movable-card ADF indicators to reduce workload and improve cross-checks with VOR indications.
Example narrative about navigation decision-making
Amelia Earhart/Norden bombsight example illustrates that instincts must be corroborated with navaid checks and chart references; do not rely solely on intuition.
SUMMARY CHECKLIST (ADF)
The ADF uses NDBs and some AM broadcasts; range limitations apply; BFO mode for CW signals.
Bearing indicators come in fixed-card, movable-card, and RMI variants.
Homing vs tracking: use either approach depending on wind corrections; wind corrections are essential for maintaining a steady bearing to the station.
Night/distance factors can affect diagnosis and interpretation of bearings; always cross-check with other navaids and charts.
ADVANCED NAVIGATION
Overview and motivation
Advanced navigation technologies (RNAV, GPS, LORAN, INS) extend range, reduce reliance on ground-based beacons, and enable point-to-point routing with electronic waypoints.
RNAV and area navigation use electronic waypoints to enable flight paths without overflying ground-based stations.
RNAV-BASED AREA NAVIGATION (VORTAC-based RNAV)
RNAV allows you to fly to a predetermined point without overflying VOR/DME or VORTAC facilities, using an RNAV computer that creates electronic phantom stations (waypoints).
The RNAV computer compares the angle and distance from the aircraft to the VORTAC to the angle and distance from the VORTAC to the waypoint; it computes the third side (the leg to the waypoint).
During flight, course information to the next waypoint may be supplied by the RNAV computer to a CDI or an HSI.
Row-level conversion for RNAV CDI: course displacement remains in nautical miles (as opposed to degree deflection on VOR CDI); scale is unit-based (nm) rather than degrees.
RNAV transition allows a mix of RNAV pathing with traditional VOR-based navigation without abandoning the familiar CDI/HSI displays.
The Pro Line 21 system example demonstrates cockpit simplification: a single system can replace several CRTs with a modern display while maintaining compatibility with GPS as primary navigation and VOR/NDBs as backups.
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION (LORAN-C)
LORAN-C is a low-frequency radio navigation system that uses a master station and two secondary stations to define two lines of position (LOP). The intersection gives the aircraft position.
TD (time difference) between master and secondary signals determines the LOP; a second LOP from another secondary defines your position.
LORAN receivers show the intersection of LOPs on a display and can calculate course, distance, and ETA to a waypoint.
Typical accuracy is around 0.3 nm or better, though accuracy depends on geometry and signal conditions.
Limitations include susceptibility to atmospheric disturbances (lightning, weather), land propagation speed variations, and changes in signal speed across terrain and foliage.
LORAN’s future remains uncertain as GPS and other modern systems gain dominance.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)
INS is a self-contained navigation system that uses gyroscopic accelerometers to measure motion and determine attitude, velocity, and heading from an initial position.
The INS computes position by integrating accelerations over time; data is continually updated to cockpit displays and autopilot/flight instruments.
Pros: highly self-contained, not reliant on external signals; cons: large, heavy, and expensive; typically found in airliners, military, and high-performance aircraft.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
GPS is a space-based, satellite navigation system with three segments: space, control, and user.
Space segment: 24 NAVSTAR satellites (plus spares) in near-circular orbits ~10,900 nmi altitude; at least 5 satellites are typically in view.
Control segment: master control station, five monitor stations, uplink antennas; updates satellite navigation messages to maintain accuracy.
User segment: receivers/antennas processing signals from satellites to determine user position, velocity, and time.
GPS operation: uses triangulation (time-of-flight from satellites) to determine position; 3 satellites yield a 2D fix, 4 satellites yield a 3D fix.
Accuracy and services: SPS (Standard Positioning Service) guarantees about 100 meters horizontal accuracy 95% of the time and 300 meters 99% of the time in typical civilian usage; PPS (Precise Positioning Service) is available to authorized U.S./allied users with higher accuracy.
RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring): many GPS receivers do not provide RAIM alerts; users should cross-check GPS with other navigation methods to detect navigation errors.
Database considerations: GPS databases must be current for IFR navigation (and recommended for VFR use as airspace data can change).
Practical considerations: portable GPS antennas may be restricted in location within the cockpit and can lose reception; always cross-check GPS with other navigation aids.
THE GPS DISPLAY AND DIAGNOSTICS
GPS units range from handheld to panel-mounted displays; displays vary in data density and map presentation (moving map, waypoints, etc.).
When using GPS, integrate it with traditional navaids (VOR/pilotage) for cross-checks and safety.
Modern avionics integrate GPS with other navigation data; systems like Pro Line 21 demonstrate cockpit consolidation for efficiency.
VOICE RECOGNITION AND FUTURE AVIONICS
Emerging cockpit technologies include voice-command interfaces enabling pilots to control radios, navigation databases, checklists, and flight plans via natural language input.
Although currently more common in military or high-end airframes, these advances point toward more integrated and less distracted cockpit environments.
SUMMARY CHECKLIST (ADVANCED NAVIGATION)
RNAV enables waypoint-based navigation within the coverage of an underlying navaid or as a self-contained system.
LORAN-C uses time differences to produce LOPs and requires triangulation for a fix; accuracy is generally good but being phased out in favor of GPS.
INS is highly self-contained but bulky and costly; GPS offers global coverage and high accuracy but depends on satellites; RAIM checks are important.
GPS accuracy is typically within 100 m (95% of the time) for SPS, 300 m (99%) for standard civilian access; PPS exists for authorized users.
Modern avionics integrate RNAV, GPS, VOR/DME to provide flexible navigation options while maintaining backup with traditional ground-based navaids.
QUANTITATIVE NOTES (selected)
Groundspeed relation (pilotage using section lines):
If you cross one section line in 30 seconds,
Wind corrections and heading adjustments are computed via WCA to convert TC to TH and MC to MH; standard practice is to begin with TC and apply Variation to obtain MC, then apply Wind to obtain TH and MH, and finally apply Deviation to obtain CH.
Basic navigation relationships:
, where V is the signed variation (East subtracts, West adds).
Position triangulation (VOR): cross-check two VORs to locate intersection of LOPs (triangulation).
DME: distance readout is the slant-range to the station; maximum usable range depends on altitude and line of sight; caution for slant-range errors near the station.
ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Rely on a systematic, multimodal navigation approach; do not depend on a single navigation aid, particularly in the presence of potential signal unreliability or weather conditions.
Maintain situational awareness and a conservative fuel reserve; ensure you can conduct a safe landing or divert if navigation reliability degrades.
Use proper flight planning (VFR/IFR) and communication (FSS, ATC) to reduce the risk of becoming lost and to enable prompt rescue if needed.
CONNECTIONS TO FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES
Navigation integrates geometry (triangulation, bearings, routes), physics (wind drift, drift correction), and human factors (situational awareness, decision making).
The evolution from pilotage to RNAV/GPS reflects a broader trend toward precision, redundancy, and integration in avionics and airspace management.
HINTS FOR EXAM PREPARATION
Remember the five Cs for lost procedures and how they translate to a flight scenario.
Be able to convert True Course, Magnetic Course, True Heading, Magnetic Heading, and Compass Heading using Variation, Wind, and Deviation.
Be comfortable with the VOR indicators: which readings indicate TO versus FROM, what a cone of confusion implies, and how to interpret the CDI deflections.
Know the VFR cruising altitude rule by course direction and the reasons for that rule.
Understand when to file and close VFR flight plans and the role of FSS in SAR.
If you’d like, I can convert this into a compact study sheet (one-page cheat sheet) or expand any one section with additional worked examples and practice questions. Also tell me which chapter you want to prioritize for your exam and whether you prefer more visuals or more equations in the notes.