2 Political Institutions


Parliamentary, Presidential, Semi-Presidential Systems

Parliamentary systems

  • Best example: UK

    • Fused powers between executive and national legislature

    • Executive secures approval of policies by majority of parliament

    • House of Commons rejects cabinet’s proposals (like 2019 votes on Brexit policy)

    • House of Lords can review and suggest amendments

    • Current majority = Labor Party

  • Combine lawmaking and executive functions

    • Legislature selects and removes head of govt. and cabinet

  • Parties can form coalitions if no majority party, becoming new dominant


UK government

House of Commons

  • elected legislature

  • will of people

Largest party in House of Commons forms…

HM Government

  • executive

  • will of majority

House of Lords

  • appointed legislature

  • unwritten constitution

UK Courts of Law

  • rule of law


China government

  • One-party parliamentary system

  • Party members choose who leadership is

    • Only CCP members can vote

  • Legislative branch chooses executive… but legislative body does not have real power



Presidential systems

  • Examples: Mexico and Nigeria

  • Cabinet mostly responsible to elected executive

  • Legislature can only remove cabinet members through impeachment

  • separate fixed-term, popular elections for national legislature

  • Top executive leader is head of state and head of govt.


Iran government

  • Religious leaders appoint members who can run in legislative



Semi-Presidential system

  • aka hybrid systems or illiberal democracies

  • Example: Russia

    • 1993 constitution

    • President appoints members in State Council and Security Council

    • State Council and Security Council → advise president and represent presidential power to other bodies

    • Duma approves prime minister

  • Separate popular elections for president and national legislature

  • President nominates a prime minister, approved by legislature


Comparing Political Institutions

Parliamentary checks

  • Less institutional obstacles to enact policy than presidential systems (bc divided branch powers)

  • Expedite plans for making policies with less delay

    • EX: devolution of central govt. powers to UK’s regional govt. since 1997

  • Commons can reject cabinet’s policy proposals, but prime minister almost always secures approval of policies

  • Lords is upper chamber but less power to check the executive, can review and suggest amendments to policies


  • Question Time: Commons members can question prime minister and cabinet members about govt. policies and implementation of those policies

  • Majority members

  • Opposition party can challenge majority party


Presidential and Semi-Presidential checks

  • Divided powers among governmental branches

  • Legislature more commonly change or reject executive policy proposals

    • Nigeria 2016 Senate rejected president’s proposed budget, relied too much from foreign sources





Executive Systems

Executive institutions

  • Chief executives (PM or President)

  • Cabinets


Functions

  • Formulate

  • Implement

  • Enforce policy


China

  • President =

    • commander in chief

    • chair of Military Commission

    • General Secretary of Chinese communist party (NPC)

  • nominates the premier of the NPC

  • Top leaders of CCP determine top governing officials without public input


Iran

  • Supreme Leader =

    • sets political agenda

    • commander in chief

    • appoints top ministers, Expediency Council, half of Guardian Council, head of judiciary

    • head of state

    • 10 year terms

  • Assembly of Experts

    • appoints supreme leader

    • directly elected every 8 years

  • President

    • two 4-year terms

    • head of government

    • civil service

    • foreign policy


Mexico

  • President

    • head of state and government

    • commander in chief

    • leader of bureaucracy

    • one 6 year term

  • Appoints members of cabinet with some positinos needing approval of Senate


Nigeria

  • President

    • head of state and government

    • two 4-year terms

    • chief executive

    • commander in chief

    • civil service

  • Appoints members of cabinet with approval of Senate


Russia

  • Prime minister

    • civil service

    • nominated by president and approved by legislature

  • President

    • head of state

    • commander in chief

    • appoints top ministers

    • foreign policy

    • presides over Duma

    • appoints judges

    • Federal Security Service and Foreign Intelligence Service


United Kingdom

  • Monarch

    • head of state

  • Prime Minister

    • leader of party that holds largest number of seats in House of Commons

    • calls elections

    • sets foreign policy agenda

    • de facto commander in chief

    • head of government

    • cabinet formulation of policy

    • implementation and enforcement of policy


Executive Term Limits

Advantages of term limits

  • check executive power

  • inhibit the emergence of dictators and personality rule

  • focus the officeholder on governing rather than winning elections

  • provide opportunities for new leaders with new ideas, policies, or goals


Disadvantages of term limits

  • take away right of voters to be served by politician of choice

  • result in lack of experienced politicians bc less experience

  • as they approach term limit, they no longer have to worry what voters think

  • force good executives to leave

  • insufficient time to achieve goals

  • less continuity


China - before President Xi, presidents had 10-year limits. Now indefinite


Iran - Supreme Leader serves 10-year terms but past 2 leaders ignore


Mexico - one 6-year terms (sexenio)


Nigeria - two 4-year terms


Russia - no more than 2 consecutive 6-year terms for each. increased from 4 to 6 in 2012. Putin was President, PM, then President again


UK - head of state nor PM has formal term limit.

Video notes

China


Mao Zedong

  • Founder of People's Republic of China (after revolution)

  • Civil war - military (Red Army) fought nationalist party

  • The Long March → establishing a communist base

    • Mao Guerrilla tactics

    • Xi's father gave refuge to Red Army after Long March

  • Maoism - Mao's decisions could not be questioned by anyone else

  • Famines and persecution → Cultural Revolution

    • Force loyalty and purges

    • Political opponents ublic humiliation, impoverished, executed

    • Red Guards - youth group obsessed with keeping

  • Mao died, Cultural Revolution ends


Deng Xiaoping

  • Succeeded Mao Zedong

  • Condemned periods of Mao's rule

  • Collective leadership

  • Opened up China, economic ties

  • First PRC leader to visit US

  • Policy innovation and decentralization → economic growth and reform

  • Deng era


Xi Jinping

  • President and General Secretary

  • Abolished presidential limits

  • Dad was Long March loyalist, denounced as a traitor by Mao

    • Xi "Princeling”

  • Took positions in rural and poor provinces → grew support in military and civilians

  • Promoted to Politburo Committee → leader of CCP

  • Launched anti-corruption campaign, arrested senior officials and military officers competition

  • Xi Jinping thought in 2021

    • No longer challenged

    • strict internet and media censorship

    • Oppression of Uighurs

  • Economy doubled in first 10 years of Xi's rule


Organization of government

  • Parliamentary system (executive + legislative branch intertwined)

  • Party makes important decisions

    • Goes to State Council → highest power led by Premier of China (from Standing Committee)

    • Enforces policy


  • Central Committee

    • Highest power in CCP

    • Politburo - small group

    • Politburo Standing Committee - top group, supreme control over central committee, military, party

    • Shared power with Central Advisory Committee



United Kingdom

Bicameral legislature


House of Commons

Elected officials

room for about 650 members

  • Speaker

    • Keeps order during debates

  • Benches

    • Government stance

    • Opposition stances 



House of Lords

Merit, clergy, lineage

Around 700 members

Appointed by the Queen

  • The Lord Speaker

    • presides over debates

  • Benches

    • Government stance

    • Opposition stance

    • Independent, non-party stances

    • Clergymen of Church of England



Legislative Systems


Russia

Bicameral

  • Duma (lower house)

    • Mixed electoral system (equal and proportional)

    • Pass legislation and confirms Prime Minister

    • Introduces bills

  • Federation Council (upper house)

    • President can recommend and appoint senators

    • Can approve or reject laws passed by Duma

      • Duma can override the veto with a 2/3 majority


UK

Bicameral

  • House of Commons

    • elected officials

    • leader of ruling party becomes PM

  • House of Lords

    • life peers, bishops, hereditary peers

    • can delay and suggest changes but cannot block them

    • royal assent given by King as a formality before law passes


Mexico

Bicameral

  • Chamber of Deputies

    • 4 year term

    • verifies election results, levies taxes, approves legislation

  • Senate

    • 6 year term

    • confirms Supreme Court appointments, approves treaties, intervene in state matters

  • Both directly elected by the people


Iran

Unicameral

  • Majlis (members of Parliament)

  • Guardian Council vets candidates for Parliament



China

  • Controlled by Politburo Standing Committee

    • Headed by General Secretary of CCP

    • Xi Jinping thought

  • Politburo

    • Makes major policies and directs government action

  • Central Committee

    • Elected by National Congress of CCP

  • National People's Congress (NPC)

    • About 70% are members of CCP

    • Formally appoints and elects key state officials

  • CCP

    • Ultimate legal and political authority in China



Nigeria

  • Bicameral

    • House of Reps

      • Green chamber

      • money bills

      • impeachment initiation

    • Senate

      • Red Senate

      • confirmation of appointments

      • treaty ratification

      • impeachment trials