psychology 101 exam
Social psychology
People carry core motivations
We need to belong and to form trusting relationships with others
We need to perceive ourselves positively
We need to perceive groups we are part of positively
We need to understand the world and feel a sense of control over our actions and outcomes
Social vs. personality psychology
The psychological study of personality focuses on individuals’ stable characteristics and their effects on behaviour
A personality psychologist wants to understand why people act consistently across certain situations
The study of social psychology instead focuses on how the immediate environment changes individuals’ behaviour
A social psychologist wants to understand why people act differently in different situations
Social psychology = changing behaviours
We need to study personality as well as social psychology to gain a full understanding of human behaviour
Social norms and conformity
We need to belong and to form trusting relationships with others
Part of why we vary our behaviour based on different environments is because of social norms
Social norms are patterns of behaviour, traditions, and preferences that are tacitly approved of by a given culture
Conformity is the process by which people implicitly mimic, adopt, or internalize the behaviours and preferences of those around them
Speaking of gender
We previously discussed gender expectations and gender conformity
A large analysis of many studies revealed that the largest difference between how parents treated their girls vs. their boys was encouraging them to participate in activities based on their gender assigned at birth
So is conformity a bad thing?
Most of the time, conformity is a good thing, allowing us to adapt to the social environment in which we live, work, play, etc.
Some of the time, conformity could lead to undesirable actions
Conformity to gender expectations could cause distress
The main idea is that, for better or for worse, we conform because we need to belong
Other people facilitate dominant response
The dominant response is the most likely behavioural outcome of a given situation
Social facilitation is an enhancement of the dominant response when performing a task in the presence of others
Social facilitation for difficult tasks
Difficult task, the dominant response is to likely make a mistake
Easy task, the dominant response is to succeed
Other people facilitate dominant response
Well-practiced, easy tasks are typically completed successfully, which means that they’re more likely to be completed successfully when competing with others or performing in front of others
Unpracticed, difficult tasks typically involve mistakes, which means that they’re more likely to be done incorrectly when competing with others or performing in front of others
Why do we choke under pressure
A personality psychologist might remind us that there are some people who are more prone to being anxious about their performance, and those folks are more likely to make mistakes under social pressure
One reason a social psychologist might give is that the presence of a critical audience causes a threat response. Regardless of the personality traits of a performer, social pressure can increase stress levels
Collaborations change behaviour
Think about the last time you had to work in a group
It could be a team sport, a school project, or planning an extracurricular activity with your club
Was someone in your group expending less effort on the task simply because there were others to help?
This is known as social loafing: the tendency to put in less effort on a task when they are doing it with others, compared to doing it alone
Loafing less likely when task is interesting
Typically, folks are less likely to socially loaf when completing a challenge and interesting task
There is also evidence that holding each individual accountable as well as the group will decrease the likelihood of social loafing
Appeal to authority fallacy
Poor logic involving authority figures
Are we programmed to obey authority?
There are a lot of hierarchical systems in society
In the psychology department, we have department chairs who lead the faculty and students
University hierarchy has deans reporting to provosts, who report to vice presidents, who report to the president
This leads to questions such as: “Can a certain type of leader lead their followers to achieve their full potential?”, “Can a powerful leader influence ordinary people to commit horrible acts?”
Milgram experiments paradigm
Participants were asked to train another person on some word lists
If their learner was incorrect, the participant was told to administer an electric shock
What would you do?
We need to perceive ourselves positively
It is easy for us to say that we would not continue if we were the participants and our learner was in pain from the shocks
It is near impossible for us to believe that we would continue following instructions if our learner had fallen silent
Indeed, many participants did not continue with the experiment when they thought they were causing harm to someone else
This study is an example of what we now call deception: the learners were actors and never received shocks for making mistakes, the experimenter was also involved in the pain
Do we conclude that obedience is bad?
Just like with conformity, obeying authority can be a good thing
We obey the laws of society, many of which keep us safe
We follow inspiring leaders on peaceful protests to bring visibility to important causes
We quiet ourselves when a speaker says “shhh” to respect the other audience members
Agree or disagree? Aggression measure
Aggression questionnaire - a reliable psychological measure
What is aggression?
From a research perspective, aggression is any behaviour directed toward the goal of harming another living being
Studies have demonstrated that outbursts of anger or aggression are often triggered when we perceive a threat to our belonging/acceptance
The general aggression model
Personality (stable characteristics) + situation (specific circumstances) -> trigger (something happened) -> reaction (physical, emotional, cognitive) -> decision (impulsive? thoughtful?)
Circumstances matter
The idea is to consider all the pieces that fit together to predict an act of aggression
Too hot out
Late for work
Hangry
Bad temper
Tired
Why do we help at all?
Infants show a preference for helpful adults and demonstrate a dislike of those who seem selfish
Perhaps we have evolved to be helpful to our family and friend groups because helpfulness increased odds of genetic survival
Why then do we help strangers? To benefit society as a whole?
It makes sense that a society would be successful when people can trust each other and cooperate with each other
Prosocial behaviour is acting in a way that assists others towards their goals
It can involve hindering progress towards our own goals
For example, not taking a luxury vacation so you can make a bigger donation to charity this year
We may also extend kindness to strangers because we hope they will do the same if we need help
The norm of reciprocity is the automatic tendency to help others who have helped in the past or are expected to help in the future
Motivation can come from empathy
To have empathy is to be able to mentally simulate another person’s suffering
It is harder to do this when we feel less similar to the other person
The other-race effect (ORE) is the tendency to see individuals of other races as more similar looking – and harder to distinguish – than people of our own racial background
This is related to the idea that it is harder to empathize with people who seem relatively less similar to us
Perhaps this is why studies demonstrate that people are more likely to help a member of their own racial group than a member of a different racial group
One way around this is to find a way to make it easier to mentally simulate other person’s suffering
Motivation to give can be self-serving
Finally, research supports the idea that individuals donate to charitable causes to manage their feelings
We need to perceive ourselves positively
We have mental representations of groups
Barbers are men and not women
Surgeons are men and not women
Parents mean one mother and one father
A stereotype is a mental representation or schema we have about a group
Similar to gender expectations, stereotypes are learned early in life
By parents, teachers, friends or classmates, media such as shows or movies, news media
Analysis of television news
When news media misrepresent information about the demographics of those who commit or survive crimes, viewers form stronger stereotypes of different racial/ethnic groups based in inaccurate information
Are your stereotypes accurate?
Stereotypes can be inaccurate because we use average differences between groups to judge the characteristics of a single member of that group
Why do we use stereotypes?
The more overloaded or exhausted we are, the more likely we are to use stereotypes to form impressions - stereotypes are energy-saving devices
We often use the automatic system when we are tired, constrained for time, or overwhelmed
The automatic system is always engaged first, and we have to willfully switch to the controlled system when needed
How can we understand others accurately?
We may need to override the automatic response to employ a stereotype if we want to make more accurate judgements about people who differ from us
Let us reflect on stigmatization
Stigmatizing: describing or regarding someone as worthy of disgrace or great disapproval
Prejudice: an adverse opinion formed without just grounds or before sufficient knowledge
How do we overcome prejudice?
The contact hypothesis is the proposal that prejudice can be reduced through sanctioned, friendly, and cooperative interactions between members of different groups working together as equals toward a common goal
Positive contact necessitates that those in a position of authority support social change
When we interact with people who are different from us, we may experience negative emotions such as nervousness
Positive interactions as equals toward a common goal can reduce prejudice and encourage empathy and perspective-taking
Direct contact with representatives of groups we are prone to prejudge is not the only way to reduce prejudice
Shifting the social norms towards inclusion can reduce instances of prejudice
What about online socialization?
The perception that we have a broad social network, even if online, is related to lower stress levels and higher well being
If you are only exposed to posts detailing ideal circumstances, you might see your own life negatively in comparison
Clinical psychology
Theory and application
Keep in mind that modern clinical psychology is both academic and applied
Clinical psychologists conduct experiments with participants from clinical populations
They also meet with clients to conduct assessments or provide therapy
Diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM)
You may have heard about this resource, which catalogues all mental disorders in standardized language
Changes are regularly made, thus the DSM has multiple versions
What is a psychological disorder?
A psychological (or mental) disorder is a clinically significant disturbance in an individuals’ cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour that is usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities
What is not a psychological disorder?
Weird or abnormal behavior does not indicate a psychological disorder
Psychological disorders can be common
Almost 1 in 8 adults identified symptoms that met the criteria for a mood disorder at some point during their lifetime, including 11.3% for depression
Lifetime prevalence rates for total anxiety disorders were 16.6%
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder are all examples of an anxiety disorder
Psychological disorders are not uncommon
Nearly half (46%) of the US population will experience a psychological disorder in their lifetime
One estimate for world-wide prevalence of any psychological disorder (including anxiety and mood disorders) is almost half a billion people
How do clinicians assess mental disorders?
A clinical assessment is a procedure for gathering information that is needed to evaluate an individual’s psychological functioning and to determine whether a diagnosis is warranted
Common components of a clinical assessment are: Clinical interview, Self-report measures, Projective tests
Clinical interview:
May be unstructured or structured
After collecting information from the client, the clinician may have an idea of whether the client is managing a psychological disorder
Self-report measures:
Reliable tools that can indicate the severity of a client’s symptoms
Results must be interpreted keeping in mind the client’s history
Projective tests:
Allow a client to impose structure on an ambiguous image, and the clinician can glean hidden thoughts and motivations
These are not the most reliable tools; current graduate students do not use them in their clinical training
Pros and cons of labels
People managing disabilities may find that having a label/diagnosis provides a reason for their hardship, making their challenges a bit easier to process
A label/diagnosis can also allow for accommodations to ensure a person with a disability is not systematically disadvantaged
At the same time, a label may contribute to a person feeling limited, or not in control of their lives. It may contribute to feelings of hopelessness
Importantly, it can also cause them to be perceived negatively by others, even unintentionally
Pros and cons of mental disorder labels
Class answers:
Pros: allows one to seek out treatment, having a reason for why one behaves or is the way they are, labels may help people find community and get support
Cons: stigma associated with having a mental disorder, might get the wrong label (at first), comparison between individuals with same diagnosis
Textbook answers:
Pros: specific label means specific treatments and research, may provide relief and motivation to seek treatment, label allows all members of client’s health care team to coordinate treatment
Cons: people managing labelled mental disorders are stigmatized, having the same label as a media-portrayed character may cause client to feel defeated, labels can encourage clinicians to view diagnoses as immutable or unrelated
Recall discussion on co-occurring disorders
Different mental disorders are often highly related
Many mental disorders are marked by common symptoms
It’s not uncommon for a person with one mental disorder diagnosis to have others
Historical treatments were often not good
Psychological disorders are not new, nor are attempts to cure or treat them
Even well-meaning physicians would cause harm to their patients in an effort to cure them
Historical treatments – trephination
Trephination is a surgical procedure in which a hole is drilled into the skull, often to reduce pressure within the skull
Past treatments for mental disorders included trephination as a means of driving out demons
It was thought that demons caused the symptoms and behaviours of patients, and that they would exit a person if provided a way out
Historical treatments – inpatients
A bit over 200 years ago, individuals who needed treatment for a mental disorder were kept alongside people who should have been incarcerated
These ‘hospitals for the insane’ were sometimes available for the public to visit and tour
Progress was made thanks to activists
Philippe Pinel pressured the French government to stop barbaric practices in Paris hospitals and developed a more humane method (moral treatment) of providing therapy to psychiatric patients
Dorothea Dix championed the cause of mistreated people with mental illness
Two common modern therapies
Psychological therapies
These are provided by accredited psychologists, psychotherapists, etc.
Biological therapies
A family doctor or a psychiatrist can prescribe medications as part of a treatment plan
In Canada, a psychologist cannot prescribe medications
Mental health professionals in Canada
Psychologists, psychotherapists, social workers, marriage and family therapists, child and youth counsellors, family physicians, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses
Adhering to a set of ethical principles
Having a high level of regulation for therapists is important
There are many legal and ethical concerns that can arise when treating psychological disorders
Some principles that mental health professionals adhere to are: do no harm, establish relationships of trust, promote accuracy, honesty, truthfulness
What predicts a therapist’s success?
The type of qualification does not seem to predict the effectiveness of the therapist
The years of experience a therapist has does not seem to make a difference
It may be more about the therapist’s interpersonal skills and how well the treatment fits the clients’ needs than more formal attributes such as credentials or experience
Successful therapies are culturally sensitive
We can see from the history of therapies for psychological disorders that our current structures and practices come from people with a western perspective
How effective is therapy?
Therapy is about as effective for men as for women, for people from different ethnic groups, and for people with different incomes
Therapy does not help everyone. One study demonstrated that 5-10% of people get worse after therapy
Some might argue these are still good odds and that therapy is worth a try – you don’t need to have a psychological disorder to try therapy
Behavioural and cognitive approaches
Two main approaches to therapy have been:
1. Behavioural approaches
We learn behaviours that are maladaptive
Example treatment: exposure therapies to treat a phobia response
2. Cognitive approaches
We make errors in thinking that cause maladaptive behaviours
Example treatment: adjusting the belief that “Everything I do must be perfect”
Cognitive behaviour therapy
Currently, these two main ideas are used in combination to deliver cognitive behavioural therapy
Treatment goals are set right from the start
Clients will complete homework assignments such as thought records
Accepting, not changing, our thoughts
Some recent developments in therapy focus on encouraging clients to accept thoughts and feelings without judging them...which is harder than you may imagine
Acceptance and commitment therapy works toward the client behaving in a constructive way despite having to manage negative thoughts and feelings
Mindfulness based stress reduction encourages clients to view their thoughts and feelings simply as fleeting mental byproducts
Evidence based practices
Both of these newer therapies are evidence based, meaning psychological research has been conducted and peer-reviewed studies have been published
Therapy outside of the clinic
Social support is an important part of stress reduction, and it can be an important part of effectively managing a psychological disorder
Moreover, many studies have revealed that there is a negative correlation between levels of physical activity and levels of mood and anxiety disorders
Movement as therapy
To establish a causal link, studies sampling from clinical populations (e.g., adults with schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, major depression) were conducted
The manipulated variable was level of participation in physical activities
Individuals managing mental disorders who exercised a lot reported a greater decrease of symptoms
This makes sense given what we know about endorphins (3.16)
The issue is that individuals managing psychological disorders often must overcome symptoms such as fatigue, pain, and low motivation
Therapy outside of the clinic
What if part of what makes exercise effective is the environment in which it occurs?
There is a lot of evidence supporting the idea that natural spaces can increase a sense of well-being in individuals
Moreover, the prevalence of some mental disorders (e.g., depression) is higher in cities, compared to less urbanized environments
City life known to increase stress
One reason why this might be is due to increased stress responses from living in a city, which is more about city life causing negative effects, not about green space causing positive effects
We still do not have strong evidence that exposure to natural settings can effectively treat psychological disorders
Other studies have combined the idea of physical activity and contact with nature (green exercise), which has been demonstrated to increase self-esteem and mood
How do we know therapy works?
A meta-analysis (an analysis of several study results) revealed that the average person who receives therapy is better off at the end of it than 80% of people who don’t
Which therapy would I choose?
Each person is different; what works well for one may not work at all for another; the same goes for therapists
This may be why some clinics have a flexible approach that allows clients to switch therapists at any time without reason
One way to choose is by examining treatments that are empirically supported – research has shown them to be effective on average
Which therapy would I choose?
An interesting discovery was made during efforts to identify empirically supported psychological treatments: different modes of therapy seemed about equally effective
The extension of this finding is “all major forms of therapy are equally effective for everyone”
Empirically Supported Treatments (ESTs)
On the other hand, we do have some evidence that certain modes of therapy are more effective for certain disorders than others
Behavioural approaches are especially helpful for anxiety disorders, including phobias
Cognitive approaches are especially helpful for depression and bipolar disorders