The American Revolution: A Comprehensive History (1775-1783)

Second Continental Congress and the Origins of the Revolution

• Foundations of Colonial Resistance: Leaders based their opposition to British rule on four primary pillars:     * Arguments regarding the rights of British subjects.     * The inherent rights of the individual.     * Local traditions of self-rule.     * The intellectual frameworks of the Enlightenment.

• Second Continental Congress (May 10, 1775):     * Participation: All $13$ colonies were represented.     * Initial Objectives: Delegates were not initially seeking independence. They adopted a relatively conservative stance focused on the "redress of colonial grievances."     * Leadership and War: The most significant act of the Congress was the decision to pursue war and the selection of George Washington to lead the Continental Army.     * Political Strategy: Washington’s selection was highly political; Northerners chose him to involve Virginia, the most populous colony, in the conflict.

• Key Congressional Documents:     * Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms:         * Co-authored by Thomas Jefferson and John Dickinson.         * Drafted a second set of appeals to the King and the British people seeking a redress of grievances.         * Represented a transitional step toward independence, following the "Declaration & Resolves" of the First Continental Congress.         * Outlined logistics: raising money and creating an army and navy.     * Olive Branch Petition:         * Largely written by John Dickinson.         * A "last ditch effort" by moderates to avert full-scale war.         * Pledged continued loyalty to the Crown and sought peace.         * Appealed to King George III to persuade Parliament to reconsider the "Intolerable Acts."         * The King refused to recognize the Congress, and the war continued.

Early Military Conflicts: 1775

• Ticonderoga and Crown Point (May 1775):     * Small forces led by Ethan Allen (and his Green Mountain Boys of Vermont) and Benedict Arnold (of Connecticut) surprised and captured British garrisons in upstate New York.     * The captured British cannons and munitions were transported to Boston, eventually forcing a British withdrawal from New England.

• Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775):     * Colonials seized Breed’s Hill, securing a vantage point overlooking Boston.     * Combatants: $1,500$ American riflemen defended against an ill-conceived frontal assault by Redcoats.     * Casualties: Over $1,000$ Redcoats were mowed down; Americans suffered $140$ killed and $441$ wounded.     * Outcome: Americans retreated in disorder only after running out of gunpowder.     * Significance: Viewed as an American victory due to the heavy British losses; it was the bloodiest battle of the war.

• Evacuation of Boston: After cannons from Ticonderoga were placed on Dorchester Heights, the British Army abandoned the city to relocate the war effort to New York.

• Royal Proclamation (August 23, 1775): King George III officially proclaimed the colonies in rebellion, which served as a de facto declaration of war.

• The Hessians: The King hired $18,000$ German mercenary soldiers (Hessians).     * Colonial reaction: Shocked by the use of soldiers known for brutality; Americans viewed the war as a family conflict, and the use of foreign mercenaries was seen as a betrayal.

• Invasion of Canada (October 1775): The American attempt to invade Canada failed. However, it postponed a British offensive, which later contributed to the success at Saratoga in $1777$.

The Ideological Shift to Independence

• Initial Sentiments (Early 1776): Most Americans did not desire independence and were proud British subjects seeking better treatment within the Empire.

• Influences of Enlightenment and Religion:     * Evangelical Protestantism: Many saw a unique moral mission to reform the world/blessings of liberty, influenced by the Great Awakening.     * John Locke: Emphasized the protection of natural rights.     * Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Ideas of the social contract and the "general will" suggested colonists should be free from tyrannical rule.     * Adam Smith: Ideas of free trade in Wealth of Nations ($1776$) resonated with experiences of "salutary neglect."

• Catalysts for Colonial Loyalty Shift:     * Hiring of Hessians.     * The burning of Falmouth and Norfolk (New England towns) by the British.     * Virginia’s Royal Governor: Promised freedom to slaves who fought for Britain, which drove Southern plantation elites to join the New England cause.

• Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (Early 1776):     * Became an instant best-seller and effective propaganda.     * Arguments: Policies were inconsistent; independence was the only path.     * Metaphor: No heavenly body in the universe has a smaller body controlling a larger one; why should tiny England control huge North America? (Appealed to those inspired by Newton’s theory of universal gravitation/natural law).     * Rhetoric: Called the King the "Royal Brute of Great Britain."     * Mission: America had a sacred moral obligation to set up an independent democratic republic, avoiding the corruption of monarchical Britain.     * Practicality: Persuaded Congress that France would only aid an independent nation, not colonies seeking reconstruction within Britain.

The Declaration of Independence

• The Motion: Richard Henry Lee proposed independence on June 7, 1776: "These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states…"     * Adopted on July 2, 1776.

• The Committee on Independence: Appointed to draft a statement. Members included Thomas Jefferson (primary author), Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston.

• Congressional Modification:     * An anti-slavery clause where Jefferson blamed England for the slave trade was modified and partially removed due to Southern pressure.     * The Declaration was not intended for the King; no response was expected.

• Timeline: Vote for independence occurred July 2, 1776; the wording was approved July 4, 1776.

• Three Major Parts of the Declaration:     1. Preamble: Influenced by Locke. Asserted natural rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (substituting property). Declared "all men are created equal."     2. List of 27 Grievances: Considered the most important part by Congress. Accused the King of:         * Imposing taxes without consent.         * Eliminating trial by jury.         * Establishing a military dictatorship.         * Maintaining standing armies in peacetime.         * Cutting off trade and burning towns.         * Hiring mercenaries and inciting American Indian violence.     3. Formal Declaration: Officially broke ties with England, naming the "United States" as an independent country.

• Immediate Result: Enabled the solicitation of foreign aid from France and others.

Patriots and Loyalists

• The John Adams Estimate: Claimed colonists were split into thirds: $1/3$ Patriots, $1/3$ Loyalists, and $1/3$ Neutral.

• Loyalists (Tories): Accounted for about $20\%$ of the population.     * Characteristics: Conservative, wealthy, educated, fearful of "mob rule."     * Demographics: Older generation, King's officers, Anglican clergy (and their followers, except in Virginia).     * Geography: Influential in Middle Colonies and Charleston; least numerous in New England.     * Outcome: $80,000$ fled; their estates were confiscated to fund the war; $50,000$ fought for the British.

• Patriots (Whigs):     * Minority movement (less than $50\%$ of the population).     * Characteristics: Better at gaining the support of neutral colonists.     * Geography: Most numerous in New England.

Key Military Campaigns: 1776–1777

• Battle of Long Island (1776): British moved to mid-Atlantic. Washington’s army escaped to Manhattan and New Jersey; Britain missed a chance to crush the rebellion early.

• Battle of Trenton (December 26, 1776):     * Context: Desertion was high, and terms of service were ending.     * Action: Washington crossed the Delaware River from Pennsylvania to New Jersey.     * Outcome: Surprised and captured approximately $1,000$ Hessians sleeping after Christmas celebrations.

• Battle of Princeton (January 1777): Washington defeated a small British force a week after Trenton, forcing outposts back to New York. These victories revived the Continental Army.

• Battle of Saratoga (1777):     * Goal: British sought to seize New York and sever New England from the rest of the colonies.     * Benedict Arnold: Slowed the British invasion, allowing the Continental Army to overwhelm them.     * Surrender: British General John Burgoyne surrendered to American General Horatio Gates on October 17, 1777.     * Significance: Most important battle; inspired French aid and entry of Spain and the Netherlands ($1779$). Revived the colonial cause.

Government and Diplomacy

• Articles of Confederation:     * Drafted in $1777$ by John Dickinson; first constitution of the U.S.     * Effective: $1781$ to $1789$.     * Powers: Conduction of war, foreign relations, borrowing money.     * Weaknesses: No power to regulate trade, conscript troops, or levy taxes.

• The Franco-American Alliance:     * Motivation: Revenge for the French and Indian War loss.     * Secret Aid: Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane arranged munitions shipments. Marquis de Lafayette was key for financial aid.     * Declaration of Independence and Saratoga convinced France that Americans had a real chance.     * Treaty ($1778$): France recognized U.S. independence. Bound both sides to fight until American freedom was won.

• Global Conflict: Catherine the Great of Russia organized the "League of Armed Neutrality" against Britain. Conflict spread to the Caribbean, South America, and Asia.

Frontier Warfare and the Navy

• Land Frontier: ‘$1777$’ was known as "the Bloody Year."     * Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea): Mohawk Chief/Iroquois leader who led raids in PA and NY. Forced to sign the Treaty of Ft. Stanwyk (the first treaty between the U.S. and American Indians), losing most Iroquois land.     * Illinois Country: U.S. seized ports (Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Vincennes) along the Ohio River, quieting Indian involvement and forcing Britain to cede the Ohio region.

• The Sea Frontier:     * John Paul Jones: Most famous naval leader. Focused on destroying British merchant shipping.     * Privateers: More effective than the navy in disrupting British trade.

The Southern Strategy and Yorktown

• British Shift (1778): Focused on Southern colonies. Savannah captured ($1778$-$1779$); Charleston fell in $1780$ (devastating American loss).

• Nathanael Greene: Cleared most of Georgia and South Carolina.

• Battle of Yorktown (1781):     * Blockade: French Admiral de Grasse blockaded Chesapeake Bay, cutting off British ships.     * Action: Washington marched $300$ miles from NY with Rochambeau’s French army.     * Surrender: October 19, 1781, Lord Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of $7,000$ men.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

• Context: Lord North’s ministry collapsed in $1782$. A sympathetic Whig ministry took over.

• French Intentions: U.S. diplomats correctly suspected France wanted to keep the U.S. small and east of the Alleghenies to benefit Spain.

• Treaty Provisions:     * Formal recognition of independence.     * Boundaries: Mississippi River (West), Great Lakes (North), Spanish Florida (South).     * Access to Newfoundland fisheries.     * No removal of slaves by British troops.

• U.S. Concessions: No further persecution of Loyalists, recommendation to restore confiscated property, and payment of pre-war debts to British creditors (Failure to comply with these later sparked the War of 1812).

• Final Results: America was the sole winner. Britain lost colonies; France became bankrupt (leading to the French Revolution); Spain gained little.

American Society During the War

• Military Demographics: Over $250,000$ soldiers fought; $10\%$ died (highest percentage of any American war).

• The Combatants: Most fighting was done by the poorest: laborers, farm boys, indentured servants.

• African Americans: $5,000$ fought for the Continentals; nearly $30,000$ joined the British for promises of freedom.

• Women’s Roles:     * Managed farms/businesses; traveled as cooks/nurses.     * Mercy Otis Warren: Wrote satirical plays and pamphlets.     * Abigail Adams: Implored her husband to ‘remember the ladies.’     * Daughters of Liberty: Organized anti-British riots.     * Combat: Deborah Sampson (disguised as male); Mary Ludwig Hays (loaded cannons).

Reasons for U.S. Victory

• Diplomatic: Foreign aid/loans from France and Netherlands; alliance with France after Saratoga; playing European powers against each other at Paris.

• Political: Inept British leadership (Lord North/George III); British Whig support for Americans; colonial creation of sovereign republics; female support at home.

• Military: Territory was too large to occupy; rural nature minimized the impact of capturing cities; Washington’s leadership at Trenton/Princeton; Atlantic time lag; French naval blockade at Yorktown.

Memory Aid for Pre-Revolution Events

• Pretty: Proclamation of $1763$

• Silly: Stamp Act, $1765$

• Tammy: Townshend Acts, $1767$

• Baked: Boston Massacre, $1770$

• Tea: Tea Act, $1773$

• Cookies: Committees of Correspondence

• Inside: ‘Intolerable Acts,’ $1774$

• Freshly: First Continental Congress

• Layered: Lexington and Concord

• Spicy: Second Continental Congress

• Dough: Declaration of Independence